2.Indian history

Colonial cities

1. With political and commercial realignments, old towns went into

decline and new towns developed. The Mughal capitals, Delhi and

Agra, lost their political authority. The growth of new regional powers

was reflected in the increasing importance of regional capitals such as

Lucknow, Hyderabad, Tanjore, etc.

2. From the mid-eighteenth century, previous commercial centres such as

Surat, Masulipatnam and Dhaka declined and colonial port cities such

as Madras, Calcutta and Bombay rapidly emerged as the new economic

capitals. They also became centres of colonial administration and

political power.

3. With the introduction of railways in 1853 economic activity gradually

shifted away from traditional towns which were located along old

routes and rivers. Every railway station became a collection depot for

raw materials and a distribution point for imported goods. Railway

towns like Jamalpur, Waltair and Bareilly developed.

4. From the beginning there were separate quarters for Europeans and

Indians, which came to be labelled in contemporary writings as the

White Town and Black Town respectively. Once the British captured

political power these racial distinctions became sharper.

5. The nature of the colonial city changed further in the mid-nineteenth

century. After the revolt of 1857 British attitudes in India were shaped

by a constant fear of rebellion. They felt that towns needed to be better

defended, and white people had to live in more secure and segregated

enclaves, away from the threat of the natives.

6. Pasturelands and agricultural fields around the older towns were

cleared, and new urban spaces called Civil lines were set up. White

people began to live in the Civil Lines. Cantonments were also

developed as safe enclaves. For the British, the Black areas came to

symbolise not only chaos and anarchy, but also filth and disease.

7. From the 1860s and 1870s, stringent administrative measures regarding

sanitation were implemented and building activity in the Indian towns

was regulated. Under-ground piped water supply and sewerage and

drainage systems were also put in place around this time. Sanitary

vigilance thus became another way of regulating Indian towns.

8. Hill stations

1. The hill stations became strategic places for placing troops,

guarding frontiers and launching campaigns against enemy rulers.

Shimla was founded during the course of the Gurkha War and

Darjeeling was wrested from the rulers of Sikkim in 1835.

2. These hill stations were also developed as sanitariums, i.e., places

where soldiers could be sent for rest and recovery from illnesses.

3. The temperate and cool climate of the Indian hills was seen as an

advantage, particularly since the British associated hot weather

with epidemics.

4. As the hill stations approximated the cold climates of Europe, they

became an attractive destination for the new rulers. It became a

practice for viceroys to move to hill stations during the summer

months. The buildings in hill stations were deliberately built in the

European style.

5. Hill stations were important for the colonial economy. With the

setting up of tea and coffee plantations in the adjoining areas, an

influx of immigrant labour from the plains began. This meant that

hill stations no longer remained exclusive racial enclaves for

Europeans in India.

6. The introduction of the railways made hill stations more

accessible to a wide range of people including Indians. Upper and

middle class Indians such as maharajas, lawyers and merchants

were drawn to these stations because they afforded them a close

proximity to the ruling British elite.

9. As Bombay’s economy grew, from the mid-nineteenth century there

was a need to expand railways and shipping and develop the

administrative structure. Many new buildings were constructed at this

time. These buildings reflected the culture and confidence of the rulers.

The architectural style was usually European.

10. Features of this style

1. First, it expressed the British desire to create a familiar landscape

in an alien country, and thus to feel at home in the colony.

2. Second, the British felt that European styles would best symbolise

their superiority, authority and power.

3. Third, they thought that buildings that looked European would

mark out the difference and distance between the colonial masters

and their Indian subjects.

4. Initially, these buildings were at odds with the traditional Indian

buildings. Gradually, Indians too got used to European

architecture and made it their own. The British in turn adapted

some Indian styles to suit their needs.

Role of Press in Indian freedom struggle

1. The invention of printing press has had everlasting impact on our

freedom movement. Though the early newspapers were started in

English, eventually the vernacular has helped penetrate the ideologies

of the national leaders and the national movement.

2. Such was the impact of these newspapers that the reactionist viceroys

like Lytton, Curzon and others have tried to obstruct the functioning of

these newspapers through acts like the Vernacular press Act, etc.

3. Specific examples

1. It was in 1857 itself that Payam-e-Azadi started publi!cation in

Hindi and Urdu, calling upon the people to fight against the

British. The paper was soon confiscated and anyone found with a

copy of the paper was prosecuted for sedition.

2. Din Bandhu Mitra published Neel darpan in 1861, urging the

people to stop cultivating the Indigo crop for the white traders.

This started a huge movement.

3. Tilak edited the kesari, a Marathi newspaper, which became one

of the leading media to propagate the message of freedom

movement. It also made the anti-partition movement of Bengal a

national issue.

4. Gandhiji had brought out publications like Young India, Harijan,

etc., to fight various social ills.

5. Subash Chandra Bose and CR Das were not journalists but they

acquired the papers like Forward and Advance which later

attained national status. Jawaharlal Nehru founded the National

Herald.

6. In case of the revolutionary movement, Yugantar, started by

Barindra Kumar Ghosh, was leading daily.

7. When the Ghadar party was organised in America, Lala Hardayal

started publication of the journal Ghadar.

8. In 1905, Shyamaji Krishna Verma started publication of a journal

Indian Sociologist from London. It used to publish reports of

political activities taking place at the India House in London.

4. Impact

1. Consolidating nationalism: With the penetration of the

Vernacular Press, nationalism has reached the most remote areas

of the country, where those educated in the vernaculars have

discussed it even with the uneducated.

2. Exposing atrocities: This was done by all the major news papers,

for instance Tilak in Kesari has spoken up about the Plague

epidemic and inaction of the British, for which he was eventually

prosecuted. The drain theory propounded by moderate leaders

such as Dadabhai Naoroji, etc

3. Arousing self-confidence: Several leaders have tried to arouse

self confidence among Indians by informing about the glorious

past of India and has thus aroused self confidence among Indians.

4. Reforms in social sphere: The vernacular press has also tried to

reform various social issues such as caste discrimination,

women’s rights and even religious reforms. Newspapers like

Darpan, Satyarth Prakash have worked for these reforms.

5. Revolutionary terrorism: Vernacular press has been at the roots

of growth of the revolutionary nationalism movement. They

propagated their ideas through news papers such as Sandhya, Kal,

Yugantar etc.

Treaty of Bassein

1. The Treaty of Bassein was essentially a subsidiary alliance signed

between the Britishers and Peshwa, BajiRao II. The system of

subsidiary alliance was used by Wellesley to bring Indian states within

the ambit of British political power as it disarmed and threw British

protectorate over Indian States in the form of Resident being

permanently stationed there.

2. Marathas (Peshwa, Scindias, Holkars) were still a power to reckon with

in western and central India. This treaty effectively posed no challenge

to British authority.

3. British troops at the expense of Peshwa were stationed at Poona, gave

greater strategic importance to the Britishers as the Company now could

interfere in the Maratha affairs directly and its rulers.

4. Under the provisions of treaty, Peshwa’s foreign policy was in the

hands of the Company. Also, non-British Europeans were expelled and

were not allowed employment under Peshwa. This had political

implications for the Britishers as it made them the sole arbitrator in

Maratha affairs.

5. Peshwa also agreed to cede in perpetuity to the company, territories in

Gujarat including Surat, territories yielding an income of 26 lakhs etc

which was used for financing the campaigns of Britishers in India.

6. Thus, after signing of the Treaty of Bassein by the Peshwa, the options

for other Maratha chiefs were curtailed, which later led to 2nd Anglo-

Maratha war and paved way for British supremacy in the whole west

and central India.

Establishment of powerful kingdom by Ranjit Singh

1. The power vacuum in Punjab province, created with the defeat of

Marathas and Mughals at the hands of British in late 18th century gave

the Sikhs an opportunity to rise, which they ably utilised under the

leadership of Ranjit Singh. This was further facilitated by frequent

invasions by Afghans due to prolonged neglect of North West frontier.

All this led to dislocation of Punjab administration.

2. It was in this context that the local Sikh chiefs, organised themselves

into 12 confederacies (misls), collaborated with each other to ward off

the attacks of Afghan rulers. As a result, the whole of Punjab and

Jammu were brought under their control.

3. However, realising the vulnerability of the confederacy to foreign

attacks and the rising power of feudal chiefs and zamindars, Ranjit

Singh annexed the misls and united all of Punjab west of Sutlej into one

Empire. He was proclaimed Maharaja in 1801. Later, he conquered

Amritsar, Kashmir, Multan and Peshawar. The old chiefs were

transformed into big zamindars. Thus the Sikh province emerged into a

powerful kingdom.

4. Given the fair amount of stability, Punjab under Ranjit Singh built up a

powerful army along European lines. Punjab under him developed

friendly relations with British by engaging them diplomatically. This

was evident in the Amritsar Treaty of 1809, between British and Ranjit

Singh, which recognised Sutlej as the border of Punjab Empire.

However, with the death of Ranjit Singh in 1839, Punjab once again fell

victim to the British imperialist greed and was annexed into the British

Empire in 1849.

1833 charter act

1. Centralisation of power: The Governor General of Bengal was made

the Governor General of British India and all financial and

administrative powers were centralised in the hands of Governor

General-in-Council. He could repeal, amend or alter any laws or

regulations in any part of British territory in India.

2. Concept of Acts: The Act provided that all laws made in India were to

be laid before the parliament and be known as acts.

3. Establishment of Indian Law Commission: To codifying the laws,

the GG-in-Council was directed to set up an Indian law commission to

inquire into the jurisdiction, powers and rules of the courts, judicial

procedure, nature and operation of all kinds of laws.

4. Indians in Administration: The act provisioned to admit the natives of

India to share administration in the country.

5. Social Measures: The act directed the GG-in-Council to give due

consideration to personal laws and work towards mitigation of the state

of slavery.

6. Thus, the act changed a commercial body to administrative setup and

laid the initial foundation for introduction of colonial government in

India.

Socio-religious movements

1. Two important intellectual criteria which informed the reform

movements were rationalism and religious universalism. A lot of it was

based on Indian tradition, rather than western ideas.

2. Genesis of awakening

1. Hinduism had become a compound of magic, animism and

superstition. Priestly class exercised an unhealthy influence on

minds of people.

2. Social conditions were equally depressing. Child marriages,

female infanticide, lack of women education, etc.

3. Caste was another debilitating factor. Untouchability and

oppression went against dignity of the individual. The rules and

regulations of caste fostered social division and sapped individual

initiatives.

4. Establishment of colonial rule in India and an attempt to

disseminate colonial culture in India.

5. Impact of modern western education and rise of middle class gave

birth to a new awakening.

6. The rising tide of nationalism and ideological concepts like

rationalism, religious universalism and humanism.

3. Contributions of socio-religious movements

1. Reformers asked people to evaluate socio-religious practices with

rationality. For example, in the Brahmo Samaj, it led to the

repudiation of the infallibility of the Vedas.

2. These reform movements worked for the welfare of the lower

castes and improving their status in the society. To purge

untouchability, Dayanand Saraswati gave a utopian explanation

for chaturvarna.

3. Reformers tried to ameliorate the status of women in the society

through reforms like the eradication of Sati, education of women,

widow re-marriage, etc.

4. The soil for the growth of Indian nationalism and political

awakening was prepared by these reform movements. For

example, Brahmo Samaj, Arya Samaj, Ram Krishan Mission and

Theosophical Society.

5. Spirit of self-reliance and determination. Reformation started by

Swami Dayanand, Swami Vivekananda, Ishwar Chandra Vidya

Sagar and R.N.Tagore gave a new life and a new spirit to the

people of India.

6. Reformers had done a lot of work in the field of education and

opened many colleges and schools for Indian masses. For

example, Hindu College, Muhammadan Anglo-Oriental College

etc.

7. Religious knowledge was disseminated through translation of

religious texts into vernacular languages. Ordinary people also

started interpreting scriptures, an acute departure from traditional

religious dogmas.

8. Therefore, the reform movements were revivalist in a sense. If the

reform movements had totally rejected tradition, Indian society

may have undergone a process of westernization.

4. Limitations of Socio religious movements

1. It had a narrow social base, namely the educated and urban

middle classes, while the needs of vast masses of peasantry and

the urban poor were ignored.

2. The tendency of reformers to appeal to the greatness of the

past, encouraged pseudo scientific thinking. Many in the Muslim

middle classes went to the extent of turning to the history of West

Asia for their traditions and moments of pride.

3. Did not question the traditional role of women. They only wanted

educated mothers and homemakers.

4. It also alienated high caste Hindus from low caste Hindus as

glorifying ancient period was not acceptable to the low caste

sections of society which had suffered under religiously

sanctioned exploitation.

5. Internal rivalries lead to breakdown of many organisations. Ex:

Brahmo Samaj divided itself into three wings after Ram Mohan

Roy. This lead to ineffective functioning.

6. An overemphasis on religious and philosophical aspects of the

cultural heritage got somewhat magnified by an insufficient

emphasis on other aspects of culture art, architecture, literature,

music, science and technology.

5. Caste

6. Balancing modern and religion (mix of ideas from west and east)

1. Rammohan attacked the practice of sati on the basis of both

appeals to humanitarian and natural rights doctrines as well as

Hindu shastras.

2. Ranade used the writings of European scholars and also used the

Texts of the Hindu Law to elaborate the shastric sanction for

remarriage of widows.

3. Sir Sayeed Ahmed Khan’s interpretation of Islam emphasised the

validity of free enquiry and the alleged similarities between

Koranic revelations and the laws of nature discovered by modern

science.

4. Some reformers believed that in pre-modern India, women were

educated. Others contested this on the grounds that this was so

only of a privileged few. Thus attempts to justify female education

were made by recourse to both modern and traditional ideas.

5. Dayanand Saraswati stood for women’s education but sought for a

curriculum that included instruction in religious principles,

training in the arts of housekeeping and handicrafts and rearing of

children.

6. Kandukiri Viresalingam’s the sources of knowledge reflected his

familiarity with navya-nyaya logic. At the same time he translated

Julius Huxley.

1857 revolt

1. The revolt is a product of character and policies of colonial rule.

2. Why did the Indian Soldiers in the 1857 mutiny rush to Delhi

1. Mughals stood as a symbol of political unity of India. So sepoys

rushed to Delhi to make Bahadur shah the head of the revolt to

make it appear as revolutionary war rather than as mere sepoy

mutiny.

2. Soldiers particularly had no leadership qualities to lead revolts. So

they want to take experience of leaders to make it successful.

3. One of the biggest arsenal was inside the city walls of Delhi.

Outside 3 miles of Delhi, 3000 barrels of gun powder was present.

So it was important for soldiers to get hold off them.

4. Delhi had a secular legacy, so the Muslim soldiers were more

comfortable.

5. Delhi is geographically located somewhat in the center of

Northern India, so easy to reach it. Transportation to Delhi was

easily available from all places of North India. Delhi also had

better infrastructure to lead a revolt.

3. Reasons for 1857 revolt

1. Political causes: Greedy policy of aggrandisement, accompanied

by broken pledges and oaths resulted in loss of prestige. Policies

like 'Effective control', 'Subsidiary alliance', and 'Doctrine of

lapse' created suspicion in the minds of the people.

2. Administrative causes: Exclusion of Indians from administrative

posts. Rampant corruption in the company's administration.

3. Economic causes: Heavy taxation under new revenue settlement,

summary evictions, discriminatory tariffs against Indian products,

destruction of traditional handicrafts industry and absence of

industrialisation.

4. Socio-Religious Causes: Social legislations like Sati abolition

act, 1829, Widow re-marraige act, 1856, etc. Missionary

activities.

5. Military Causes: The General Service Enlistment Act decreed

that future recruits to cross sea for providing their services.

Unhappy with emoluments compared to British counter parts. He

was a 'peasant in uniform'.

6. Immediate Causes: In 1856, the government decided to replace

the old fashioned muskets by the Enfield rifles In order to load the

Enfield rifle, the greased wrapping paper of the cartridge had to be

bitten off by the soldier.

4. Consequences of 1857 revolt

1. British government passed Government of India Act 1858 and

assumed direct responsibility for the administration.

2. The era of annexations and expansions ended and British

promised to respect the dignity and rights of the native princes.

Princes and Zamindars acted as 'break waters to storm' during the

revolt. Doctrine of Lapse was abolished.

3. The British assured the people that religious and social practices

would be respected and not be interfered.

4. The Indian states were henceforth to recognise the paramountcy of

the British crown.

5. The Army was thoroughly re-organised and military policy came

to be dominated by idea of division and counterpoise. The

proportion of Indian soldiers in the army was reduced and the

number of European soldiers in the army was increased.

6. Policies were made to protect landlords and zamindars and give

them security of rights over their lands.

7. Muslims were considered to be responsible for the rebellion in a

big way. Hence their land and property was confiscated on large

scale. Policy of Divide and Rule began.

8. Racial hatred and suspicion between Indians and English was

aggravated.

5. Centres of revolt

1. Delhi -- General Bakht khan.

2. Kanpur -- Nana Saheb.

3. Lucknow -- Begum Hazrat Mahal.

4. Bihar -- Kunwar singh

5. Jhansi -- Laxmibai

6. Role of women in 1857 revolt

1. 1857 revolt was called as first war of independence was mainly

seen as a struggle led by soldiers, but women have their respective

share in the revolt.

2. Rani Lakshmi Bhai, Moti Bhai (to save Lakshmi bhai), Begum

Hazrat Mahal, were some front runners who rebelled for varied

reasons stood as stiff resistance to British and had made the

people to wage the struggle.

3. The essential communication network was also led by common

women along with men to deliver the right message that can step

up the planned resistance.

4. A Bheel tribal women called Sursi, inspired his son to arm against

the British though the reason may be other than the soldiers cause.

This type of inspirations by women can be seen in local rulers

also.

5. Women like Ashgari Begum, Asha Devi, and Bhagavati Devi

resisted the British attempts to exploit in their local areas for

which they welcomed death.

Changes after 1857

1. Administartion

1. Government of India act, 1858 transferred the power from EIC to

British crown.

2. Indian councils act, 1861 returned the legislative powers to

provinces of Madras and Bombay, etc.

3. Bifurcating central and provincial finances by Lord Mayo in 1870.

4. Lord Ripon resolution in 1882.

2. Public services

1. Satyendranath Tagore in 1861.

2. Exam age brought down. No transfer of effective power.

3. Princely states

1. Policy of annexation was abandoned.

2. Territorial integrity was guaranteed.

3. Subordination of princely states to British authority as Queen

adopted the title of Kaiseri-i-Hind in 1876.

4. Exercised the right to interfere in the internal matters of the states.

4. Policies

1. Divide and Rule to avoid united mass action.

2. Hostility to educated Indians.

3. Zamindars and landlords were used as counter-weights.

4. Reversal of policy of support to social reforms.

5. Social services ignored.

6. Half-hearted and inadequate labour legislations introduced.

7. Restriction on freedom of press wherever it is helping nationalist

upsurge.

8. Racial arrogance.

5. Foreign policy

1. Keep other European powers at an Arms length.

2. Reach out to natural geographical frontiers for internal cohesion

and defence.

British Army after 1857

1. The revolt of 1857 was instigated by the Indian army and it was the

main force throughout the revolt. In fact, the army had always been

volatile with the mutinies taking place at regular intervals since the time

of its inception. Thus, to stop the recurrence of mutinies and strengthen

its control over the Army, the British overhauled the British Indian

Army post revolt.

2. Changes made

1. Proportion of Europeans to Indians was changed to 1:2 in Bengal

Army and 1:4 in Bombay and Madras Armies.

2. Strict European monopoly over important geographical locations,

higher positions, and strategic departments like artillery and

armed corps.

3. Indian soldiers were given inferior quality arms.

4. The army was reorganised on the basis of balance and

counterpoise. An ideology of martial and non-martial races was

propagated and preference was given to Gurkhas, Sikhs and

Pathans, who earlier assisted the revolution.

5. Caste and communal divisions were introduced in each regiment.

Regiments were mixed with soldiers of different socio-ethnic

groups to balance each other. Communal, caste, tribal and regional

consciousness was encouraged to check the growth of nationalist

feelings.

6. It was cut off from the rest of population by preventing the reach

of newspapers and journals to it.

3. How these changes strengthened the control of British

1. Indian Army became a pure mercenary force, which could fire on

anyone on the order of its masters as evident from the Jallianwala

Bagh massacre where Gurkha Regiment fired upon their

countrymen. It became the army of occupation of British in India.

2. The unity of the army was lost. One regiment could act against

other. This led to chances of a combined revolt to minimum. Even

as late as 1946, the revolting Naval ratings were captured by the

Maratha regiment.

3. As the Indians were not in key positions and were in possession of

poor weaponry, their capacity to revolt vanished. As a result,

barely any revolt of significance occurred in the army till the 2nd

world war.

4. Due to its separation from mainstream and its divisive structure, it

was hardly affected by the nationalist sentiments.

4. The feelings of nationalism gradually percolated the army as well and

the troops in South-East Asia during 2nd World War revolted and

played an important role in the struggle for independence. Revolt in

army also indicated an erosion of authority of the British over its

premier colonial instrument.

Organisations before INC

1. Prior to its formation, there were many political organisations.

However, they were dominated by the educated middle class — the

lawyers, journalists, doctors, teachers, etc., and they had a wider

perspective and a larger agenda.

2. Political organisations before INC

1. The British Indian Association demanded establishment of a

separate legislature of a popular character, separation of executive

from judicial functions etc.

2. The Indian Association of Calcutta was founded in 1876 by

Surendranath Banerjee and Ananda Mohan Bose, in response to

the conservative and pro-landlord policies of the British

Indian Association. It aimed to promote the political, intellectual

and material advancement of the people.

3. The East India Association was organised by Dadabhai Naoroji

in 1866 in London to discuss the questions of Indian interest and

influence public men in England to promote Indian welfare.

4. The Poona Sarvajanik Sabha was founded in 1867 by M G

Ranade and others, with the objective of serving as a bridge

between the government and the people.

5. The Bombay Presidency Association was started by Badruddin

Tyabji, Pherozshah Mehta and K.T. Telang in 1885.

6. The Madras Mahajan Sabha was founded in 1884 by M.

Viraraghavachari, B. Subramaniya Aiyer and P. Anandacharlu.

3. These associations campaigned for Indianisation of civil services,

freedom of speech and expression, separation of judiciary from

executive, repeal of Arms Act among others. Since, they had less

success, a need was felt for a pan-India organisation to put more

pressure on the British Government.

How British helped in growth of national movement

1. Economic exploitation: Men like Dadabhai Naoroji and RC Dutt say

that the poverty, economic backwardness and under-development of

India were direct consequences of British colonialism. The British

discouraged cottage industries of India and dumped the Indian market

with goods manufactured in England.

2. Unification: By civil services, unified judiciary, codified laws

throughout the length and breadth of country imposed a new dimension

of political unity. Railways and telegraph brought masses very close to

each other and strengthened the feeling of nationalism.

3. Rise of middle class: Expanding English educated class formed the

middle class intelligentsia who constituted the nucleus of newly arising

political unrest. This new class though was minority played a vital role

in igniting the minds of majority.

4. Press: Unprecedented growth of Indian owned English and vernacular

newspapers, helped the spread of modern idea of self government,

democracy, civil rights and industrialization.

5. India past: Scholars like Max Muller, Roth and RL Mitra aroused

nationals feelings and demolish colonial myths that Indian was inferior

race and bound to servility.

6. Misc factors: Ilbert bill, decrease of eligibility in ICS from 21 to 19

years, and contribution of Christian Missionaries who spread lot of

western ideas.

Moderates

1. Moderate leaders were those leaders who dominated INC during early

phases (1885-1905) and believed in methods of Prayer, petition and

protest (PPP).

2. Achievements

1. Economic critique of British imperialism

1. Early nationalists like RC Dutt, Dadabhai Naoroji, put

forward the drain theory.

2. Moderates were able to create an all-India public opinion

that British rule in India was the major cause of India's

poverty and economic backwardness.

2. Constitutional reforms and propaganda in legislature

1. Expansion and reform of council. Their demands for

constitutional reforms were conceded in 1892 in the form of

the Indian Council Acts, 1892.

2. They gave their slogan 'No taxation without representation'.

3. They used the councils for ventilating their grievances.

4. Gradually, the scope of constitutional demands was widened

and Dadabhai naoroji, Gokhale demanded local self-

government like colonies of Canada and Australia.

3. General administrative reforms

1. Indianisation of government service.

2. Separation of judicial from executive functions.

3. Criticism of oppressive bureaucracy.

4. Criticism of an aggressive foreign policy.

5. Better treatment for Indian labour abroad.

6. Some moderates like Ranade and Gokhale favoured social

reforms. They protested against child marriage and

widowhood.

4. Defence of civil right

1. They popularised the ideas of democracy, civil liberties and

representative institutions.

2. Public outrage at the arrest of Tilak.

3. Reasons for failure of moderates

1. Moderates remained distant from masses hence their mass appeal

remained ineffective.

2. Pray, petition and protest type of politics were not effective and

extremists criticised them of being incompetent of getting

reforms.

3. Bengal was divided against the will and wish of people.

4. Vandemataram movement, irrespective of its intensity turned to

be deaf ears. Youth element in vandemataram movement paves

way for extremism.

5. People like Savarkar brothers and Chapekar brothers started

advocating extremism. Emergence of leaders like Tilak in

congress led to new kind of environment that is more favourable

to the extremists.

4. Even if the moderates moved away from mainstream politics, the

flames that they had ignited by then, led to a new kind of environment

that facilitated continuance of national movement.

Militant nationalism

Moderates vs extremists

Swadeshi movement

Cultural contribution of Swadeshi movement

1. October 16, 1905 observed as Raksha Bandhan Day.

2. Charkha (spinning wheel) came to typify the popular concern for

country’s economic self-sufficiency.

3. All sections of protestors took inspiration from songs written by

Rabindranath Tagore, Rajnikant Sen, Dwijendralal Ray, Mukunda Das,

Syed Abu Mohammad and others. Tagore’s Amar Sonar Bangla written

on this occasion was later to inspire the liberation struggle of

Bangladesh.

4. Revival and emergence of nationalist art and education. It was during

this movement that the concept of Bharat Matha was promoted.

Painting of Abanindranath Tagore broke the domination of Victorian

naturalism over Indian art and took inspiration from Mughal, Ajanta

and Rajput paintings.

5. Movement added untouched women section into protests.

6. Satyagraha was first time used in this movement which became vital

tool for future agitations.

Morley-Minto Reforms

Revolutionary terrorism

1. Sudden withdrawal of non-cooperation movement left large numbers of

youth in dismay. They did not find constructive work and council entry

as attractive options. Hence they resorted to revolutionary terrorism

which can be broadly divided into Punjab, UP and Bihar group and

Bengal group.

2. Development

3. Contributions

1. They inspired the masses with their heroics. Their death defying

heroism created a fear among the British establishment in India.

Ex: Killing of unpopular officers.

2. Their journals, books had become constant ideological inspiration

for the independence movement. Ex: Yugantar, Kesari, Bharat

mata etc.

3. They raised the banner of Indian cause on foreign soils like

Madan Lal Dhingra, Lala har Dayal’s Ghadar, etc.

4. Revolutionary movement also contributed towards socialistic

ideas. Ex: Bhagat Singh.

5. They did not believe in violence as an end but used it tactically to

pursue the cause of independence. For example, surrender by

Bhagat Singh and BK Dutt after Meerut conspiracy case.

6. Both Punjab and Bengal revolutionaries were secular in their

organisation and working.

7. Bengal revolutionaries took active help of women, thus bringing

them into freedom struggle fold.

8. The early Indian revolutionaries drew inspiration from the Gita

and the writings of Vivekananda and from the early Russian

revolutionaries, Irish nationalists, and Mazzini, the hero of Italian

liberation.

4. Limitations

1. They could not reach to the peasant and workers as it was an

urban phenomena. They failed to build either a nation-wide

organisation or a mass base.

2. Lack of leadership qualities and communication left many times

with failed attempts.

3. British Government came up with various acts to repress growing

militarism.

4. Adherence to religion had kept muslims away.

5. Outside influence

1. Defeat of Russia by Japan and Italy by the Ethiopians busted the

myth of European supremacy.

2. Japan since attaining freedom from the imperialist powers came

long way, developed with the help of industrial revolution of its

own, proving that idea of western presence for necessary

modernisation and development was a flawed one.

3. The Boer wars where British faced reverses, strengthened the

resolve of nationalists back home.

4. Participation of European powers in world war led to a bitter

campaign of maligning each other in a way showing their true

exploitative nature to the entire world.

6. Revolutionary terrorism after 1920s

1. HRA was formed in 1924 by Bismil, JC Chatterjee and Sachin

Sanyal with an aim to organise an armed revolt to overthrow the

colonial government.

2. Kakori robbery in 1925. Government cash was looted.

3. HRA to HSRA in 1928. Inspired by socialist events.

4. Saunders murder by Bhagat Singh, Azad and Rajguru.

5. Bomb in central legislative assembly against the passage of the

public safety bill and Trade disputes bill aimed at curtailing civil

liberties of citizens.

6. Chittagong armoury raid to seize and supply arms to the

revolutionaries to destroy telephone and telegraph lines.

7. Revolutionary movements in Bengal and Punjab

1. Similarities

1. Build the cadres by inspiring the youth through their armed

action against colonial government.

2. Demoralise the colonial bureaucracy and overthrow the

colonial government by armed revolt.

3. Vision of socialist state in the independent India.

4. Both the trends showed secular character.

2. Differences

1. Revolutionary terrorists in Punjab, U.P and Bengal resorted

to individual heroic actions while those in Bengal carried out

their activities in groups. For example, bomb attack on

central assembly in Punjab is by the heroic actions of Bhagat

Singh while Chittagong armoury raid was carried out in

group by Bengal wing under the leadership of Surya sen.

2. Women participation was more in Bengal region especially

under the leadership of Surya Sen while the same cannot be

said about Punjab, UP and Bihar. Ex: Pritilal waddedar,

Kalpana Dutta, Sunita chowdary, Shanti Ghosh and Bina

Das.

Home-rule leagues

Gandhi in South Africa

1. Moderate phase of struggle: During this phase, Gandhi relied on

sending petitions and memorials to authorities in South Africa. He setup

Natal Indian Congress and started a paper Indian Opinion.

2. Phase of passive resistance or Satyagraha: Passive resistance or civil

dis-obedience.

3. Satyagraha against registration certificates: A new legislation made

it compulsory for Indians there to carry at all certificates of registration

with their finger prints.

4. Setting up Tolstoy farm: Meant to house the families of the

Satyagrahis and to give them a way to sustain themselves.

5. Campaign against poll tax and invalidation of Indian Marriages.

Was Khilafat movement a blunder

1. The Khilafat movement was a political campaign launched by Indian

Muslims to protect the Caliph. Gandhi saw in the Khilafat movement a

golden opportunity to unite Indian Hindus and Muslims and present a

joint front to the colonial government.

2. Despite its strong anti-imperialist tone, the movement was in essence a

pan-Islamic, fundamentalist movement which had nothing to do with

the question of Indian freedom. It failed to raise the religious political

consciousness of Indian Muslims to the higher level of secular political

consciousness.

3. The Khilafat movement was criticised for mixing religion with politics.

The deployment of the Ulema led to the radicalisation of the movement

and the sidelining of moderate leaders of the movement who supported

Gandhi’s creed of non-violence.

4. The religious fervour generated by the Khilafat movement saw the

outbreak of Moplah riots in Malabar and riots also ensued in other parts

of the country. There was also a rise in militant Hindu radicalism in

response to the movement. The worsening communal situation and

rising violence were instrumental in Gandhi’s decision to withdraw the

NCM in 1922.

5. The Khilafat movement set a precedent for future mobilisation of the

Muslim masses by invoking religious symbols and imagery which was

subsequently replicated during the Pakistan movement. Many advocates

of Pakistan see the movement as a major step towards establishing a

separate Muslim state. Hence, although the Khilafat movement began

as a movement to unify Hindus and Muslims, it ended up radicalising

the politico-religious environment.

Imperial legislative councils till 1920

1. The Imperial legislative council was an impotent body with few

representation for Indians and that too rich and wealthy and having no

power to make a significant effect. It was formed to vent out the

political steam by British but nationalist were able to use these platform

significantly.

2. Ways of working in the councils

1. They used these council for exposing the true nature of British

Government and their indifferent attitude towards Indians.

Nationalist flayed government foreign policy which resulted in

annexation of Burma and attack on Afghanistan and time-

consuming judicial system.

2. They made these councils a platform for political discussions and

severely criticised the government policies. G.K Gokhale raised

important questions regarding the budget in the council and

severely reprimanded British government for their anti-Indian

economic policies.

3. The councils were used to raise demands regarding discrimination

of Indians in civil services exam, to increase the social spending,

to treat Indian bureaucrats on par with European etc.

4. Nationalists were able to create a wide national awakening and a

feeling of unity from these platforms. They used these councils to

disseminate modern ideas and to mobilise the masses.

5. But restricted social base and their failure to achieve anything

substantive through these councils made the nationalist to raise the

demand for swaraj. It was only through their incessant efforts

inside the councils that several economic and political demands

for the betterment of Indians could be raised.

Swarajists

Communalism

1. Communal consciousness arose as a result of the transformation of

Indian society under colonialism and the need to struggle against it.

2. Some of the factors

1. Communalism was one of the by products of colonial

underdevelopment. The economic stagnation under British rule

resulted in intense competition for government jobs. Private jobs

were very limited. Communities tried to further their narrow

interest by grouping and demanding reservations in government

jobs. This took a communal colour.

2. Under their policy of divide and rule, British officially favoured

and nurtured communalism. Examples are Morley-Minto Act

which provided for separate electorates for Muslims.

3. Communalism in history writing. Diving history into Hindu

history, Muslim history, etc.

4. Side-effects of socio-religious movements. Ex: Wahabi movement

among Muslims, Shudhi movement among Hindus.

5. There was also a communal tinge visible in actions of extremists

which polarised the communities. Ex: Tilak's Ganapathi festival,

Shivaji festival and Durga Puja.

6. A vague Hindu aura was visible in the national movement

too. Gandhi slogans of Ramraj etc were the most prominent

examples.

7. Communal reaction by majority community like Hindu

Mahasabha, RSS, etc.

8. Congress acceptance of separate electorates during Lucknow pact

in order to put forward a joint demand before British.

9. The British also took little action against even violent communal

movements. The policy was of non-action.

3. Events that entrenched communalism

1. There was hardly any communalism in India till the last quarter of

the 19th century. The Hindu-Muslim unity was visible in the 1857

mutiny. Thereafter, things got worse.

2. 1909 Morley Minto act: Separate electorates for Muslims.

3. Lucknow Pact 1916: INC accepted the demand of separate

electorates for Muslims. Implicitly, they also accepted that the

interests of Hindus and Muslims were different. It was a

communal ideology.

4. Montague-Chelmsford Act 1919: Extended the provision of

separate electorates.

5. Nehru report 1928: Reservations for religious minorities with

joint electorates. By negotiating with communal leaders, the

congress legitimised their politics and made them respectable.

6. 1937 Provincial elections: Congress won an overwhelming

victory. It did not form a coalition with the Muslim league in

some provinces. This left the league with a feeling that they will

be left as a minority in India’s democratic government. In other

words, only the British could save their interests in the

government.

4. Thus communalism in India is a product of British policies, unmindful

writing and unintended consequences of socio-religious and freedom

movement.

Simon commission and Nehru report

1931 Karachi resolution

1. The Karachi session became memorable for its resolution on the

Fundamental rights and National economic programme. It is for the

first time that the congress defined what Swaraj would mean for the

masses. Swaraj as conceived by the Congress should include real

economic freedom of the masses.

2. Fundamental rights

1. The resolution guaranteed basic civil rights of free speech, free

press, free assembly and freedom of association.

2. It granted equality before law irrespective of caste, creed or sex.

3. It also laid down neutrality of state in regard to all religions. Thus

inlaid down India to be a secular state.

4. It promised elections on basis of universal adult franchise.

5. It promised free and compulsory education.

6. It maintained that the culture, language and script of the

minorities and of different linguistic areas shall be protected.

3. National economic programme

1. It promised substantial reduction in rent and revenue, exemption

from rent in case of uneconomic holdings, and relief of

agricultural indebtedness and control of usury.

2. It also promised better conditions for workers including a living

wage, limited hours of work and protection of women workers.

3. It also conferred the right to organise and form unions to workers

and peasants.

4. Nationalisation of key industries and services, railways, etc.

4. The Karachi resolution by setting the parameters of the Swaraj was

reflecting the then dominant leftwing ting of the national movement.

The resolution was to remain in essence the basic political and

economic programme of the Congress in later years.

New forces during 1920s.pdf

Civil disobedience movement

1. To carry forward the mandate given by the Lahore congress, Gandhi

presented 11 demands to the Government and gave an ultimatum.

2. Various forms of civil disobedience

1. Dandi March.

2. Defiance of salt laws across country. In Tamil Nadu,

Rajagopalachari led Vedaranyam March. Kelappan led a march in

Malabar.

3. In Assam, satyagrahis walked from sylhet to Noakhali to make

salt.

4. Khan abdul Gaffar khan's 'Khudai Khidmatgars' movement.

5. In Sholapur, textile workers went on a strike and burnt liquor

shops and other symbols of Government authority such as railway

stations, etc.

6. Sarojini Naidu lead a raid on Dharsana salt works.

7. A campaign was organised in Bihar and Bengal against

Chowkidara tax.

8. In Gujarat, a determined no-tax movement was organised.

9. In Maharastra, Karnataka, central provinces there was defiance

against forest laws.

10. In Assam, a powerful agitation was organised against infamous

Cunningham circular which forced students to furnish assurances

of good behaviour.

11. Rani Gaidinlu of Nagaland raised a banner of revolt against

foreign rule.

3. Mass participation

1. Women picketing.

2. Students played most prominent part in boycott of foreign cloth

and liquor.

3. Petty traders active in Tamil Nadu and Punjab.

4. Tribals in central provinces, Maharashtra and Karnataka.

5. Workers participated in Sholapur.

6. Peasants were active in UP, Bihar and Gujarat.

4. Gandhi-Irwin Pact

1. The pact can be considered as a strategic break as was the

withdrawal of the non-cooperation movement in 1922. Mass

movements are necessarily short-lived as people’s capacity to

sacrifice is not endless.

2. There was no guarantee that government would be willing to talk

even after all comrades got exhausted in the movement.

Government could have crushed the movement any time

ferociously.

3. The lands of peasants were returned after the Congress Ministry

assumed office in Bombay in 1937.

4. National confidence increased as the mighty British Government

and national leaders came on an equal footing to sign a pact. They

saw this as recognition of their own strength, and as their victory

over the Government.

5. Controversy

1. Gandhiji refused to make the Pact conditional on the commutation

of the death sentences of Bhagat Singh and his comrades.

2. The Pact is also criticised due to the vacillating nature of the

Indian bourgeoisie and Gandhiji succumbing to bourgeois

pressure. It is alleged that Gandhiji was apprehensive of the mass

movement taking a radical turn.

3. The pact did not immediately restore confiscated land. Land

which is already sold to a third party, and several other

conditionalities.

4. Therefore, peasants were not happy with the pact signed.

Government of India act, 1935

1. The Government of India Act 1935 is said to have been the longest

serving British Act of Parliament ever enacted by that time.

2. Federal level

1. Subjects to be administered were divided into reserved and

transferred subjects.

2. Bicameral legislature.

3. Council of states to be permanent body.

4. Three lists for legislation.

5. Religion based and class-based electorates were further extended.

6. GG had residuary powers.

3. Provincial autonomy

1. Provincial autonomy replaced dyarchy.

2. Separate local level identity.

3. Independent financial powers. Could borrow money.

4. Governor was to be crown's nominee.

5. Separate electorates.

6. Direct elections to all the members.

7. Ministers were made answerable.

8. Women got right to vote.

4. Limitations

1. Numerous safeguards and special responsibilities of the governor

general worked as brakes in proper functioning of the act. Also,

British authorities also retained a right to suspend responsible

government.

2. In provinces, Governor still had extensive powers in the form of

veto over legislations, refusing assent, etc.

3. Most part (80% at central level and 40% at provinces) of the

budget was still not votable.

4. The act enfranchised only 14% of Indian population.

5. The extension of communal electorates to depressed classes acted

to promoted separatist tendencies.

6. The act provided a rigid constitution with no possibility of internal

growth.

Congress ministries in 1937

1. The Government of India act, 1935 provided for direct provincial

elections. Congress has formed the popular government in 11 out of 17

provinces.

2. Legislative record

1. Emergency laws were repealed. Restrictions and ban on press,

certain books, newspapers, and illegal organisations was lifted.

2. Agrarian legislations, tenancy acts provided respite to the peasants

in respect of limitations on rent, tenancy rights and also other

payments.

3. The Industrial disputes act improved the security of working

labour. But some provisions welcomed socialists wrath.

Introduction of Industrial committee to assess the labour’s wage

demand.

4. Measures for welfare of Harijans like temple entry, education,

etc., were taken.

5. Encouragement was given to khadi and indigenous enterprises.

6. Attention was given to primary, technical and higher education

and to public health.

3. Administrative records

1. Police was reformed by curbing their arbitrary powers and using

for good cause.

2. Prison reforms were undertaken.

3. Change in land revenue system, though not fully eliminated

zamindari, but restored the land rights to the peasant and not to

land lords.

4. Morale of ICS officers being enhanced with congress ministries

work. Ministries even firmly used ICS to deter communal riots

effectively.

5. In 1938, national planning committee set up under congress

president Subhash Chandra Bose.

4. Evaluation

1. The contention that Indian self government was necessary for

radical social transformation got confirmed.

2. Congress men demonstrated that movement could use state power

to further its ends without being diverted in other works.

3. Administrative work by Indians weakened the myth that Indians

were not fit to rule.

4. The ministries were able to control communal riots.

5. Council work helped to neutralise many erstwhile hostile elements

like landlords, etc.

6. Congress ministries failed in agrarian reforms because of

constraints like less powers, less financial resources, etc. but in

other spheres they did very well.

5. Constraints before congress ministries

1. The ministries did not have adequate powers.

2. There was financial crunch as lion share was appropriated by

Government of India.

3. Zamindars also had to be conciliated as they have important role

in further struggle. So, radical agrarian reforms were not possible.

4. There was constraint of time since the logic of formation of

ministries was to confront and cooperate with colonialism. War

clouds started mongering within an year of formation of

ministries.

5. The reactionary second chamber consisting of princes,

moneylenders, stood in the way of many legislation.

6. The agrarian structure was too complicated and complex.

Individual satyagraha

1. Even after several efforts of the Congress to make British introduce

more constitutional reforms, the Britishers refused to budge from their

earlier position and kept issuing several ordinances, imposing

restrictions on freedom of speech and press.

2. To show that the silence of the Indians was not due to their weakness,

and simultaneously not to hamper Britain’s war efforts against the

Fascist powers, Gandhiji decided to launch satyagraha on an individual

basis, by carefully choosing his trusted members as the Individual

satyagrahis.

3. Objectives

1. To show that nationalist patience was not due to weakness.

2. To express people’s feeling that they are not interested in the war

and that they made no distinction between Nazism and double

autocracy that ruled in India. It also propagated the freedom of

speech.

3. To give another opportunity to the Government to accept congress

demands peacefully as Gandhiji was still reluctant to divert

British’s attention against the Nazi onslaught.

4. Contribution

1. It was able to build a base for the initiation of QIM later.

2. Movement was never meant to achieve any specific aim. It was an

expression of Indian antipathy towards the British double

standards and the War.

3. In an effort to placate people, Linlithgow increased Indian

members in war advisory council.

4. It made India’s stand clear to international leaders. It also helped

us to put pressure on the British to yield ground. This led to cripps

mission.

5. The movement failed to create a lasting impact, as after being

released form the jail, several members of the CWC passed a

resolution to abandon the movement, in return of the promise

from Britain, of full power transfer after the war. This was done to

protect Indian territory from Japanese attack, by helping the allies

actively.

5. Congress demands before the war

1. It would cooperate in the war if a) freedom was given after the

war, b) some form of genuinely responsible government was

immediately setup.

2. After war broke out, Congress response was a) No support to the

war, b) resignation of congress ministries, c) No immediate mass

struggle.

Cripps mission

1. Why cripps mission was sent

1. Because of reverses suffered by Britain in South-East Asia,

Japanese threat to invade India seemed real now. So, Indian

support became crucial.

2. Pressure from allies like USA, China to seek Indian cooperation.

Chiang-Kai shek visited India to impress upon British

Government.

3. Indian nationalists had agreed to support the Allied cause if

effective power is transferred.

4. The ever mounting pressure of Muslim league on the British

Government in the favour of Pakistan.

5. National liberal foundation (NLF) sent an appeal to Churchill,

known as Sapru proposal. The liberals urged that India should be

accorded equal status with other dominions.

2. Reasons for failure

1. Offer of dominion status instead of complete independence.

2. Right to provinces to secede as this went against the principle of

national unity.

3. Absence of any plan for immediate transfer of power. Governor

General supremacy has been retained.

4. Muslim league also did not support the idea as the idea of single

union was not acceptable to them.

5. The incapacity of the cripps to go beyond the draft declaration and

adoption of rigid attitude added to the dead lock.

6. Talks broke down on the question of veto.

QIM agitation

1. Why the agitation now

1. Failure of cripps mission.

2. Public discontent against war time hardships.

3. A feeling of imminent British collapse.

4. Indian leadership desire to prepare masses for possible Japanese

invasion.

2. Major activities

1. Public on rampage, attacks on symbols of authority.

2. Underground activity.

3. Parallel governments in Balia, Tamluk, Satara, etc.

4. Sections participating included youth, women, workers, peasants,

etc.

3. Role played by under ground movements

1. The pattern of activity of the underground movement was

generally that of organising the disruption of physical transport

infrastructure and tele-communications.

2. There were also a few attacks on government and police officials

and police informers.

3. Underground networks kept up popular morale by continuing to a

line of command. Prominent members of the underground

networks were Achyut Patwardhan, Aruna Asaf Ali, Ram

Manohar Lohia.

4. They also collected and distributed money as well as material like

bombs, arms, and dynamite to underground groups all over the

country.

5. Many national leaders went underground and continued their

struggle by broadcasting messages over clandestine radio stations.

For example, Usha Mehta organised congress Radio, a secret

station.

6. Parallel governments were established in the underground

networks.

7. Students acted as couriers. Simple villagers helped by refusing

information to the police. Government officials, including those in

the police, passed on crucial information about impending arrests.

8. Thus, the underground network, even though did not create a large

impact, but ensured the continuity of the movement and widened

the participation base for the QIM.

4. INA agitation was land mark

1. INA agitation internationalised the issue of Indian independence.

The popularity and intensity of the campaign for the release of

INA prisoners was conducted was unprecedented. This was

evident from the press coverage and other publicity it got.

2. INA agitation had wide geographical reach upto Sindh,

Balochistan, etc. Municipal Committees, Indians abroad and

Gurdwara committees subscribed liberally to INA funds.

3. It also saw participation of diverse social groups and political

parties. INC, Muslim League, Sikh bodies, all supported leniency

for INA.

4. Pro-INA sentiment even spread to those social groups such as

government employees, loyalist sections and even men of the

armed forces.

5. No communal clashes occurred during this period and as a matter

of symbolism, British had inadvertently put one Hindu, one

Muslim and one Sikh on trial first.

6. Soon people began to perceive this issue as India versus British.

Students, youth, workers, etc., started to pledge revenge on British

if any INA man was sentenced. Instances of hartals, processions,

attacks of authorities, etc. began to increase. The matter went out

if control for British when Calcutta hartals and Royal Indian Navy

strike occurred.

5. Why congress accepted Partition

1. Accepting inevitable.

2. Immediate transfer of power.

3. Partition plan ruled out independence for princely states.

4. It was only final act of process step-by-step concessions. Gandhi's

acceptance of right of self determination of Muslim majority

provinces during Gandhi-Jinnah talks.

6. Why British withdrawal seemed imminent

1. Success of nationalist forces.

2. Demoralisation among bureaucracy and the loyalist sections.

3. Limitations of British strategy of conciliation and repression.

4. Demands of leniency for INA by army-men and RIN ratings

revolt.

5. All out repression seemed impossible. For good future of Indo-

British relations.

Cabinet mission

Role of Mountbatten in post independent consolidation

1. Achievements

1. Credited with achieving transfer of power in a limited time and

within limited resources through formulation of Mountbatten plan

and its implementation.

2. He engaged in a personal dialogue with reluctant princes, such as

the Nawab of Bhopal, who he asked through a confidential letter

to sign the instrument of Accession making Bhopal part of India.

3. He pointed out that the Indian subcontinent was one economic

entity, and that the states would suffer most if the link were

broken and difficulties that princes would face maintaining law

and order.

2. Criticism

1. He appointed Radcliffe, a person not so well about India, to draw

a partition line.

2. Criticised for advising Nehru on Kashmir issue to UN which is

still unresolved.

3. Lord Mountbatten has been criticised for hastening the

independence process unduly and recklessly leading to vast

disruption and loss of life.

4. The formula for freedom with partition was already accepted

before Mountbatten took charge and the idea of immediate

transfer of power on the basis of grant of dominion status was

given by VP Menon.

5. Though the positive role of Mountbatten needs to be

acknowledged, it must be remembered that Lord Mountbatten was

an officer of British Government and was serving their interests.

Why did the partitioning of India cause violence

1. Partitions are often brutal. West Germany and East Germany had tense

relationships surrounding the Berlin Wall. North Korea and South

Korea are constantly in a state of a shadow war. North Vietnam and

South Vietnam were engaged in a brutal war. The fight among brothers

and neighbours is nastier than fight among strangers.

2. Religious frenzy: Although there were areas of dominant religious

groups, religious communities were diffused throughout the nation. To

enable a religious partition, millions had to be moved. That resulted in

anger and violence, that kept escalating.

3. Lack of law and order: There was complete collapse of institutions of

governance. British officials were unwilling to take decisions. The top

leadership of the Indian parties were involved in negotiations regarding

independence while many Indian civil servants in the affected provinces

feared for their own lives and property.

4. Ambiguous boundary: Drawing of border had many short comings.

Lahore was surrounded by Hindu villages and should have gone to

India, but gone to Pakistan due to its importance in Islamic culture.

Amritsar was surrounded by Muslim villages, but went to India due to

the Golden temple. Such controversial moves, left millions to be left on

the wrong side of the border.

5. Territorial claims: Jinnah wanted more than 50% of land of India, but

it was not agreed to by Indian leaders. When the borders were finally

drawn, Pakistan was not happy as they got less area than that was

demanded and Indians too were unhappy as they felt Pakistan has taken

away territory that was rightfully theirs. Thus, there was high tension on

both sides on the eve of partition.

6. Weather: The 1947 monsoon was under par in Western India, while it

was fairly okay in eastern India. This left a lot of western farmers in

pain and anger. The partition gave them a chance to vent their anger and

blame the pains on the opposition. This pent up anger kept escalating

the violence.

Nationalist foreign policy

1. 1880 to First World War

1. This phase was dominated by feelings of Anti-imperialism. After

1878, the British undertook a number of expansionist expeditions

which were opposed by the nationalists. The expeditions of

Britain include, second Afghan war, Annexation of Burma in

1885, Invasion of Tibet under Curzon in 1903, etc.

2. Nationalists showed solidarity with other colonies fighting for

freedom, such as Russia, Ireland, Egypt, Turkey, Ethiopia, Sudan,

Burma and Afghanistan.

2. World War I

1. The nationalists supported the British Indian Government in the

belief that Britain would apply the same principles of democracy

for which they were supposed to be fighting.

2. After the conclusion of the War, the congress insisted on being

represented at the Peace Conference. In 1920, the Congress urged

the people not to join the Army to fight in the West.

3. 1920s and 1930s (Socialists)

1. In 1925, the congress condemned the dispatch of Indian Army to

suppress the Chinese nationalist army under Sun-Yat-Sen.

2. Dadabhai Naoroji attended the Hague session of the International

Socialist Congress. Gandhi had close relations with Tolstoy and

Rolland Romain.

3. The Congress also decided to open a foreign department to be in

touch with the other peoples movements.

4. In 1927, Nehru attended the Congress of Oppressed Nationalists

at Brussels on behalf of the Indian National Congress.

5. In 1927, Nehru also visited the Soviet Union and was very

impressed by the achievements of the infant socialist state. He saw

Russia as a bulwark against imperialism.

6. Nehru came to understand the international character of US

imperialism during his European experience. Nehru was also

nominated to the executive council of the League against

Imperialism.

4. After 1936 (Anti-Fascism)

1. The 1930s saw the rise of Fascism in Europe and the struggle

against it. The nationalists saw imperialism and fascism as organs

of capitalism. They lend support to the struggle against fascism in

other parts of the world in Ethiopia, Spain, China, and

Czechoslovakia.

2. In 1939, at the Tripura session, the congress dissociated itself

from the British policy which supported fascism in Europe.

3. In 1939, Japanese attack on China was condemned by the

nationalists. The Congress also sent a medical mission under Dr

Atal to China.

4. On the Palestine issue, the Congress lent support to the

Palestinians. It expressed sympathy with the Jews, but urged that

the Palestinians not be displaced. It also opposed the partition of

Palestine.

5. India’s support for anti-colonialism during freedom struggle

1. Indian National congress opened a foreign department to be in

touch with the other peoples movements.

2. Dadabhai Naoroji attended the Hague session of socialist

international (2nd international) and outlined India’s support

against war and imperialism. Lala

3. Lajpat Rai also made contacts with American socialists during his

visit from 1914 to 1918. India was the founding member of ILO

in 1920s.

4. In 1927, Nehru attended the Congress of oppressed nationalists at

Brussels.

5. During the 2nd world war, India lent support to other parts of the

world like Ethiopia, Spain, China, and Czechoslovakia in their

struggle against fascism and imperialism.

6. In 1939, the Japanese attack on China was condemned and a

medical team under was sent to China. India supported China in

the anti-fascist war.

7. The INM supported the Palestinians on the Palestine issue. It

sympathised with the Jews but was against partition of Palestine.

8. India also lent support to fight against racial discrimination in

South Africa.

6. Contribution to the political trends

1. Polity based on representative democracy and full range of civil

liberties and Popular sovereignty formed the basis of INM which

later became the very essence of Indian political thinking.

2. The practice of non-violence helped in forming the basic temper

with which Indian political system was to function in future i.e

discussion, debate and persuasion backed by public opinion and

tolerance towards political opponents.

3. NM opposed all kind of inequalities and discrimination based on

caste, colour, gender, etc., including evils of untouchability and

helped create an egalitarian atmosphere which not only helped in

securing reservation for SC/STs in constituent assembly but their

overall upliftment.

4. Secularism was a very basic tenet on which INM worked which

later became the pillar of the Indian polity, society and culture.

7. Contribution in foreign policy

1. Against colonialism: India expedited the independence of

Indonesia from the Dutch.

2. Against racism: India supported for the cause of racial equality

in south Africa.

3. Independence in foreign policy: India stood independent even

during cold war era. It took cooperation from other NAM

countries. India took independent stand on international issues

based upon its discretion but not upon compulsion (Korean war,

Vietnam war and Egypt crisis).

4. International peace: NAM promoted peace in international arena

and Panchsheel promoted peace with neighbourhood. India has

been sending its peace keeping troops to UN. No first use is our

nuclear policy.

5. India for ethics in international setting: Liberation of

Bangladesh, financial assistance to comparatively less developed

nations.

Economic critique of British rule

1. Deindustrialisation led to ruin of artisans and handicraftsmen. Charter

Act 1813 allowed one-way trade for the British citizens. The loss of

traditional livelihood was not accompanied by a process of

industrialisation in India.

2. Impoverishment of peasantry which led to ruralisation of India. High

rents, summary evictions, transferability of land caused great insecurity

among tenants. Government did not invest in improvement of land.

3. Emergence of New land relations, ruin of old zamindars. By 1815, half

the land of the Bengal had passed into new hands. Increase in sub-

infeudation, absentee landlordism, etc.

4. Stagnation and deterioration of agriculture. No incentive to invest in

agriculture. The New Zamindars had no roots in the villages.

5. Commercialisation of Indian agriculture. It was a forced process.

6. Development of modern industry in the second half of the 19th century.

But most of them were foreign owned. Indian owned industries suffered

from many handicaps like credit problems, no tariff protection by

government and unequal competition from foreign companies and stiff

opposition from British capitalist interests. The industrial development

was characterised by a lopsided pattern -- Core and heavy industries

and power generation were neglected. Some regions were favoured

more than the others -- causing regional disparities.

7. Rise of Indian bourgeoisie. Indian traders, moneylenders and bankers

had amassed some wealth as junior partners of English merchant

capitalists in India.

8. Economic drain. A portion of national product was not available for

consumption of its people, but was being drained away to Britain for

political reasons. The major components were salaries and pensions of

officials, interests on loan taken by Indian government from abroad,

profits on foreign investments in India, etc.

9. Recurrence of famines during British rule.

Education policy of British

1. The geographic spread of its rule rendered the continued import of

Europeans to man the administration unsustainable and impractical.

Further, the Christian missionaries propounded the theory of 'white

man's burden' and considered it their divine duty to educate and liberate

the masses from orthodoxy. Hence, for the first time, the Charter Act of

1813 sanctioned one lakh/year for promoting education in the country.

2. The introduction of modern education was aimed at creating a class of

'Indians in blood and color but English in taste, opinions, moral and

intellect'. It was also employed for producing Indians to man the

subordinate positions in the administration and as a means to legitimize

the British rule.

3. Characteristics of British education policy

1. The money sanctioned under Charter Act of 1813 and 1833 (one

lakh and ten lakh respectively) was grossly inadequate for

promoting education.

2. Macaulay's Minutes, 1835 completely stopped support to any

vernacular language.

3. Downward Infiltration Theory was aimed at educating a handful

of Indians, who would act as a link between the British and the

masses. But this did not lead to mass education.

4. Despite repeated demand from the nationalists, the government

shirked the responsibility of introducing free and compulsory

education.

5. Indian Universities Act, 1904 curbed the autonomy of

universities, as they were perceived to be factories of

revolutionaries.

4. However, the effort to create a class of 'loyal working class' ignited

Indian minds; it aroused national consciousness — freedom fighters

were inspired by Irish and Russian revolutions, and imbibed modern

ideas of democracy, liberty, equality and fraternity. The educated

Indians became an anchor of the freedom struggle, uncovered the

exploitative economic policies, and lead the masses towards the goal of

freedom.

Judiciary under British

Indian states

1. Struggle for equality (1740 -1765): East India Company captured

Arcot in 1751 and asserted the political identity over India ending

French hold over except for Pondicherry.

2. Policy of Ring Fence (1765 -1813): Used by Warren Hastings.

Reflected in wars with Marathas and with Mysore for creating the

buffer zone to defend company's frontiers.

3. Policy of Subordinate Isolation (1813-1857): Theory of paramountcy.

Indian states surrendered all kind of sovereignty and their external

administration, now they had control of only internal administration of

their states.

4. Policy of Subordinate union (1857-1935): Policy of annexation

ended. The Act of 1858 transferred powers into the hands of the crown

that is queen of Britain and known as Kaiser-i-Hind.

5. Policy of Equal Federation (1935 to 1947): The princely states were

to be brought into a direct constitutional relationship with British India

which was the part of the scheme.

6. Integration and Merger: Junagadh, Hyderabad and Kashmir.

Civil rebellions in British India

1. Rebellions were not confined to the later period of the British Empire

but were a constant feature of it from its very beginning, culminated in

to the revolt of 1857. Erosion of the traditional forms of authority and

increased economic pressure were two basic reasons for these uprisings.

2. Causes

1. The major cause of all these civil rebellions taken as a whole was

the rapid changes the British introduced in the economy,

administration and land revenue system. These changes led to the

disruption of the agrarian society, causing prolonged and

widespread suffering among its constituents.

2. Above all, the colonial policy of intensifying demands for land

revenue and extracting as large an amount as possible produced a

veritable upheaval in Indian villages. This led to growing

indebtedness or into selling their lands. The economic decline of

the peasantry was reflected in twelve major and numerous minor

famines from 1770 to 1857.

3. Thousands of zamindars and poligars lost control over their land.

Thus they had personal scores to settle with the new rulers.

4. The new courts and legal system gave a further fillip to the

dispossessors of land and encouraged the rich to oppress the

poor. The ordinary people were also hard hit by the prevalence of

corruption at the lower levels.

5. The ruins of Indian handicraft industries, as a result of the

imposition of free trade in India and levy of discriminatory tariffs

against Indian goods in Britain, pauperized millions of artisans.

6. The misery of the artisans was further compounded by the

disappearance of their traditional patrons and buyers, the princes,

chieftains and zamindars. The scholarly and priestly were also

active in inciting hatred and rebellion against foreign rule.

3. Political and religious Movements

1. These movements erupted in the early phase of colonial

expansion. In this phase religion provided the framework to locate

and understand the colonial rule and articulate resistance.

2. Fakir Uprising, Sanyasi Uprising, Pagal Panthis, Wahabi

Movement, Faraizi Movement, Kuka Movement and Moplah

Rebellions.

4. Movements by deposed rulers and Zamindars

1. This category of the rebellions was affected by the aggressive

policy of annexation by the British and the subsequent

disturbances in the economy of the regions. The problems were

accentuated by the exacting land revenues. These uprisings are

mainly known either by the name of the leader or the region where

they occurred.

2. Velu Thampi and Polygar Rebellions are two main Uprisings in

this category.

3. In 1808-09, Velu Thampi, the Dewan of Travancore, rose up in

rebellion against the British attempt to remove him from the

Dewanship and the heavy burden imposed on the state through the

Subsidiary Alliance System.

4. The Polygars were quite similar to the Rajputs of North India, and

were given land in exchange for military service when called

upon. The conflict in this case, as in others, was on the question of

the collection of taxes, rather on, who should collect it, the

traditional classes or the Company Officials.

5. Ramosi uprising, protest against heavy assessment of land revenue

and the harsh methods of its collection.

Tribal movements

1. With the exception of the north east, they had been reduced to a

minority with the influx of outsiders and exposed to rapid changes.

2. Causes of Tribal movements

1. Imposition of land revenue settlement eroded the joint ownership

and increased the socio-economic differentiation in the egalitarian

structure of the tribal society.

2. Introduction of the notion of private property where land could be

bought, sold, mortgaged which led to loss of land by the tribals.

3. Work of Christian Missionaries.

4. The establishment of the Forest department in 1864, Government

Forest Act (1865) and Indian Forest Act in 1878 together

established complete government monopoly over Indian forest

land. Shifting Agriculture was banned from 1864 onwards on the

reserved forest. Restrictions were imposed on the previously

sanctioned timber and grazing facilities.

5. Extension of settled agriculture led to influx of non tribals in the

tribal areas.

6. Some of the tribal uprising took place in reaction to the effect of

the landlords to impose taxes on the customary use of timber and

grazing facilities, police exaction, etc.

3. Santhal Rebellion: First phase was against economic exploitation.

Under Sindhu and Kanha, the movement was to expel outsiders (Dikus)

and Christian missionaries.

4. Munda Uprising: Munda rose up in rebellion seven times against the

landlords, dikus, money lenders and the British, who instead of

protecting them sided with the oppressors. The tribal chiefs rose up

against the erosion of Khuntkatti System or Joint tenures.

5. Khasi Uprising.

6. Ahom Revolt.

Peasant movements

1. The nature of peasant movements kept on changing with the time

during our national movement.

2. Common underlying factors to the peasant movements

1. Unreasonably high rents and protection to the landlords and

moneylenders.

2. Arbitrary evictions and unpaid labour.

3. Exploitation of the already overburdened farmers by the

Zamindars and moneylenders.

4. Harsh systems of the British. Ex: Forced cultivations of Indigo

crop, Sunset clause, seizure of cattle and crops due to non-

payment of loans etc.

5. Transferability of land which deprived the traditional occupancy

rights.

6. Lack of awareness of clauses leading to sudden loss of land and

work, leading to collective uprisings.

3. Peasant movements before 1857

1. The peasants during this phase organized themselves and elected

their own leader.

2. They collectively raised a huge army equipping themselves with

primitive weapons.

3. Peasants attacked courts and looted stores.

4. Prominent places became the centres of mobilization. Ex: The

Rangpur Rebellion (1783). Santhal Rebellion (1855).

4. First Phase (1857-1920s)

1. This phase was characterised by the sporadic growth of peasant

movements in the absence of proper leadership. The tyranny of

zamindars along with the exorbitant rates of British land revenue

led to a series of spontaneous peasant uprisings. The periodic

recurrence of famines aggravated the situation.

2. Ex: The Indigo revolt (1859-60), Pabna agrarian leagues (1870s

and 1880s), the Deccan riots of 1875 against the moneylenders

were few examples of this stage.

3. In ryotwari areas, the struggle took the form of entire peasantry

against policies of the British. In zamindari areas, struggle took

the form of various categories of tenants and a chain of sub

tenants.

4. In the tribal zones, the struggle took various forms of resistance.

They ranged from struggle against forest laws, exploitation of

money lenders, incoming of indentured labourers brought by

British for their plantations.

5. In the north-eastern mountains and other politically strategic

terrains struggle often took the form of sharp military-politico

confrontations.

5. Weaknesses of First phase

1. There was a lack of an adequate understanding of colonialism.

They did not target colonialism but they they targeted zamindars,

money lenders who were just pawns in the colonial rule.

2. They did not possess a new ideology and struggles occurred

within the framework of the old societal order lacking a positive

conception of an alternative society.

3. They grew out of narrow regional grievances and were mostly

spontaneous without any planning.

4. They also lacked an effective leader who can organise them.

5. Caste played a significant role in the mobilisation of peasants and

religious overtones were also prevalent.

6. Second Phase (1920s-1946)

1. This phase was marked by the emergence of the class conscious

peasant organisations. The first Kisan Congress held at Lucknow

in 1935 led to the formation of the All India kisan sabha. The

programme of the Sabha reflected the aspirations and needs of the

peasantry.

2. Civil disobedience movement gave a great push to peasant

movements, as it blended peasants demands with national goals.

The movement gave birth to new generation of political leaders

who sympathised with peasants. Formation of congress ministries

in 1937 heralded a new era in peasant movement.

3. Political pressure of the Kisan Sabha succeeded in the Faizpur

Congress and paved the way for the formulation of the Congress

agrarian programme. However, the congress could not, under the

pressure of the native bourgeoisie grant any radical concessions to

the peasant demands, at the cost of jeopardising the interests of

zamindars.

4. Many important peasant movements which had significant impact

on national politics. Ex: Kisan Sabha movement, Eka movement,

Mappila revolt, Bardoli satyagraha, etc

5. Local issues integrated with the national cause of Swaraj. In

Andhra Pradesh, an anti-settlement agitation against zamindari

zulum in 1927. Swami Sahajanand led a heroic movement for the

abolition of zamindari in Bihar. In Punjab, a no revenue campaign

was accompanied by the emergence of kisan sabhas that

demanded a reduction in land revenue. Forest satyagrahas

by tribals in Maharashtra, Bihar and central provinces. In UP, no-

revenue soon turned into no-rent. Peasants in Gujarat refused to

pay their taxes and went hijrat to neighbouring Baroda territory to

escape government repression.

7. Post-independence Phase

1. The years since independence have seen agrarian struggles of

enormous variety, ranging from the legendary Telangana

movement, Tebhaga movement, and the PEPSU tenant’s

movement which continued from the pre-independence years, to

the Naxalite or Maoist movement in the late sixties and the New

farmers movements of the eighties.

2. A shift is visible from issues arising out of colonialism and

feudalism to issues arising out of the Green Revolution and other

processes of agrarian change including the aspirations aroused by

the struggle for land reforms.

8. Telangana peasant struggle

1. The peasants in Telangana suffered extreme feudal type

oppression at the hands of Jagirdars and deshmukhs, some of

whom owned thousands of acres of land. The communists

organised the peasants against the hated forced grain levy imposed

by the government, and forced labour extracted by landlords and

officials.

2. The people of the state grew restless of Nizam because of his

delay in region’s integration with India. So, they started a

movement for integration under the leadership of the State

Congress.

3. Camps were set up on the borders of Hyderabad with

Maharashtra, coastal Andhra, etc., and arms were also sent in to

help the resisters withstand the attacks of the Razakars, armed

gangs of Muslim militia let loose on the predominantly Hindu

population.

4. Finally with the help of the Indian army, razakars were defeated

and land reforms carried out in Telangana.

9. New Farmers’ Movements

1. The New farmers movements burst on to the national political

stage in 1980 with the road and rail roko agitation in Nasik in

Maharashtra led by the Shetkari Sangathana.

2. The basic premise on which the movement existed is that the

farmers are being exploited by Govt in the form of under

payments for agricultural products and over pricing of consumer

and industrial goods. As a result, farmers are exploited by urban

interests, and are victims of internal colonialism.

3. New farmers movements have focused mainly on demanding

remunerative prices for agricultural produce, and lowering of

government dues such as canal water charges, electricity charges,

interest rates and principal of loans, etc.

4. But many critics them for being vehicles for demands of rich or

well to do agriculturists most of whom are beneficiaries of post

independence agrarian development, including the green

revolution, and have little or no room for the concerns of the rural

poor.

5. The agrarian movements that emerged from the late 1970’s are

often referred to as new, the suggestion being that they are part of

the worldwide trend of new non-class or supra-class movements

which have emerged outside the formal political party structures,

examples being the women’s and environmental movements.

6. Most of these farmers organisations have not shown signs of

really trying hard to become a social movement. Thus, they cannot

be brought into the category of new social movements.

7. The new farmers movements are not all that new as similar

demands were made by peasant organisations earlier as well.

8. While it is true that none of the organizations were started by

political parties, it is also true that over time they have inexorably

got linked to politics.

10. Decreased relevance of agrarian struggles from 1990s

1. The single point of agitation of these movements was better

returns for farmers in terms of price for the produce. From the

1990s onwards, agricultural pricing policies have ensured a

healthy return to farmers for their produce. Accordingly, the

upward price swings robbed these movements of their raison

d’être.

2. A major weakness of these movements was their failure to create

an identity for farmers. The excessive dependence of these

movements on regional parties also lead to their demise. But

parties have varied interests and are guided by their own political

interests.

3. Urbanisation has resulted in mass migration of peasants living in

rural areas to cities. Further, farmers are now leaving agriculture

and allied activities for other sectors. These developments have

severely dented the cadre base of these movements.

4. Disparity among farmers belonging to different regions has been

on the rise due to green revolution. The farmers of one region no

longer identify with the causes of the farmers from other regions.

This has resulted in the splintering of the peasant movements

along regional lines.

5. In today’s globalised context, farmers issues are increasingly

being taken up by a vigilant media and civil society organisations.

This has to some extent shrunk the political space that was

exclusively available to peasant movements, who were hitherto

seen as the sole vanguards of peasant causes.

11. Bharatiya Kisan Union (BKU)

1. Farmers of Haryana, Punjab and western UP had benefited in the

late 1960s from green revolution. Sugar and wheat became the

main cash crops in the region since then. The cash crop market

faced a crisis in mid-eighties due to the beginning of the process

of liberalisation of Indian economy.

2. The BKU demanded higher government floor prices for sugarcane

and wheat, abolition of restrictions on the inter-state movement of

farm produce, guaranteed supply of electricity at reasonable rates,

waiving of repayments due on loans to farmers and the provision

of a government pension for farmers.

3. Similar demands were made by other farmers organisations in the

country. Shetkari Sanghatana of Maharashtra declared the farmers

movement as a war of Bharat against forces of India.

4. Another novel aspect of these mobilisations was the use of caste

linkages of farmers. Most of the BKU members belonged to a

single community. The organisation used traditional caste

panchayats of these communities in bringing them together over

economic issues.

5. In spite of lack of any formal organisation, the BKU could sustain

itself for a long time because it was based on clan networks

among its members. Funds, resources and activities of BKU were

mobilised through these networks.

6. The organisation, along with the other farmers’ organisations

across States, did manage to get some of their economic demands

accepted. The farmers movement became one of the most

successful social movements of the eighties in this respect.

12. Non-party movements

1. In the 1970s and 1980s, many sections of the society became

disillusioned with the functioning of political parties. Failure of

the Janata experiment and the resulting political instability were

the immediate causes. In the long run the disillusionment was also

about economic policies of the state and increasing socio-

economic inequalities. Politically active groups lost faith in

existing democratic institutions and stepped outside of party

politics to engage in mass mobilisation.

2. Students were in the forefront in organising Dalits and Adivasis.

Because of the voluntary nature of their social work, many of

these organisations came to be known as voluntary organisations.

3. Similarly farmers complained of neglect of agriculture sector by

forming organisations like BKU.

4. Women movements like anti-arrack (liquor) movement, anti-

dowry movement got a new thrust during this period.

5. In 1990s, MKSS organised public hearings, where the

administration was asked to explain its stand in public. The

movement had a small success when they could force an

amendment in the Rajasthan Panchayati Raj Act. Later on, the

movement gave rise to RTI.

6. Yet the real life impact of these movements on the nature of

public policies seems to be very limited. This is partly because

most of the contemporary movements focus on a single issue and

represent the interest of one section of society. Thus it becomes

possible to ignore their reasonable demands. Democratic politics

requires a broad alliance of various disadvantaged social groups.

Labour movements

Earlier nationalists were also indifferent to labour cause because they

believed that labour legislations would affect competitive edge enjoyed

by Indian-owned industries.

They also did not want division in the national movement on the basis

of classes.

Trade union act, 1926 -- Recognised trade unions as legal associations.

Laid down conditions for registration and regulation of trade union

activities.

Trade disputes act, 1929 -- Ban on strikes in public utility services.

Forbade trade union activity.

Subash Chandra Bose

BR Ambedkar

1. He led millions of oppressed to a life of self respect, dignity, and

responsibility. He stressed the importance of better education, so that

position of common people in society can be improved.

2. Babasaheb began the revival of Buddhism in India that has grown

tremendously after his death, and continues to grow today among his

countless followers. He was a veritable phenomenon of the 20th

century.

3. He was the chairperson of the Constitution drafting committee. One of

the greatest contributions of Dr. Ambedkar was in respect of

Fundamental Rights and Directive Principles of State Policy enshrined

in the Constitution of India. He created the system of reservation by

keeping in mind untouchable and their condition in that India.

4. He did a great job in removing social evils in India. Bahishkrit

Hitakarini Sabha was the first organised attempt from his side to uplift

the untouchables. He wanted to educate them for a better life. After this

many public movements and marches had been initiated under his

leadership that were meant to bring equality in the society.

5. He worked for the improvement of the status of women in India. He

was the first law minister of independent India and he drafted Hindu

civil code bill during his tenure. It got passed in 1956 and was key for

Hindu Women’s upliftment as it abolished polygamy, granted equal

property rights, etc.

6. Not only this, but formation of the Reserve Bank of India in 1934 was

also based on the ideas of Babasaheb that he had presented to the Hilton

Young commission. Amartya Sen who is a Nobel Prize winner in

economics had said that Ambedkar is his father in economics.

Gopal krishna Gokhale

1. As a moderate, he contributed and desired to change British rule

through reason. Served in Bombay legislative council and Imperial

Legislative council. He also tried to make relationship harmonious

among ranks of congress.

2. Supported the modern education, and in fact was first to ask for it.

3. Asked for free press, social reforms, committed to free speech and

constructive criticism.

4. He inspired Hindus and Muslims alike with his sharp aptitude toward

demand in constitutional way regarding economic, administration and

political power sharing to Indians.

5. Supported Gandhi during his stay in Africa, which indirectly helped

Gandhi to evolve strategy. Gave financial help to Gandhi to setup

Sabarmati ashram.

Savarkar

1. The name of VD Savarkar is synonymous with Hindu nationalism and

Hindu Mahasabha. This perception blindfolds his essential sacrifice and

contribution to India’s freedom cause.

2. Contributions

1. Association with revolutionary activities via Abhinav Bharat

ushered vigour, mobilised youth and broke the infallible nature of

Britishers.

2. He wrote a book called history of the war of Indian independence

and analysed the circumstances of 1857 uprising by describing

British rule as unjust and oppressive.

3. Supported and popularised Swadeshi and Boycott movements

during educational days. His campaign of burning foreign cloth

resonated with women and youth to do the same.

4. He condemned the practice of religious rituals and advocated

yantra yug thus unifying people.

5. He brought unity and spirit of nationalism by focussing on

Hinduism as way of life and appealing to emotions of fatherland

and holy land of India.

6. Propagated a democratic state with equal rights to all and

embracing of modern-scientific education. This approach assisted

in society to move from irrational beliefs and rituals to singular

cause of India.

3. Criticism

1. He believed in reconversion of Hindus who were converted into

Muslims and Christians by missionaries.

2. Muslim league along with Hindu Mahasabha and other religious

institutions are blamed as major contributors in partition.

4. Savarkar sacrifice during his jail time and his constant devotion to

India’s nationalism is essential predecessor to India’s successful

freedom attainment.

Jayaprakash Narayana

1. JP had an enormous influence in shaping the Socialist movement in

India. He along with Ram Manohar Lohia set an example of opposition

in democracy influencing constructively the ruling power. He wanted

the grass root to be at the centre of welfare.

2. Contributions to Pre-independent India

1. He followed Gandhi in Quit India movement and led the

movement when other leaders were arrested.

2. He established Congress Socialist Party (CSP) in 1934.

3. As a follower of Marxism, he accepted violent way of revolution

for freedom movement and established Azad Dasta which was a

group of violent revolutionaries for freedom movement.

4. Involvement in the Kisan Sabha movement.

3. Contributions Post independent India

1. He started SARVODYA movement for development of all across

caste, religion, class and gender. After independence he gave

Sarvodaya Plan for economic upliftment of all classes.

2. He also gave his support to Vinoba Bhave in his Bhoodan

movement.

3. JP’s most enduring contribution to post independent India was his

call for 'Total Revolution' against the misrule of the then Central

Government.

4. He found the People’s Union for Civil Liberties (PUCL) in 1976

to uphold Civil liberties.

4. Though he had never been the part of government, his contribution in

constructive opposition both inside and outside the parliament was great

for the development of Indian naive democracy. He posthumously

awarded with Bharat Ratna in 1999 for his contribution.

Swami Vivekananda

1. He was the first cultural ambassador to the west. He showed that India

has much to contribute to world culture. He also showed that science

and religion are not contradictory but are complimentary.

2. He played a major role in unification of Hinduism. He gave a global

unique face to the belief system and was in a way first to say that

Hinduism is not a religion but a way of life.

3. First time in Indian Hinduism history Swami Vivekananda allowed

Sudra (the 4th varna) to join as monks in ashram and worship in temple.

4. Earlier women were not allowed to chant Vedas and to join as a monk.

They were considered impure due to menstrual cycle they incur.

Swamiji removed these two rules and allowed women to chant Vedic

mantra.

5. Defending Hinduism was one of the important work of his life.

Missionaries of west and pseudo-intellectuals propagated their own

understanding of Hinduism which were mostly negative in nature. He

raised his voice against this and clarified the concepts of Hinduism

thereby, giving self-pride to followers of Hinduism.

6. He founded Ramakrishna Mission to propagate the teachings of his

Guru Sri Rama Krishna Paramhans and interpreted many ancient Hindu

scriptures in context of the modern world.

Pandit Madan Mohan Malviya

1. He is remembered in the world as the founder of Asia’s largest

residential university at Varanasi, the Banaras Hindu University (BHU).

The University has students all across the fields such as the arts,

sciences, engineering and technology.

2. He worked for the education of women, besides supporting widow

remarriage and opposed child marriage.

3. He had also founded a highly influential English newspaper, The

Leader, published from Allahabad in 1909.

4. India’s modern history records Pandit Malaviya’s contributions as a

bridge between the moderates and the extremists during the freedom

struggle. He became the Indian National Congress (INC) president four

times in 1909, 1918, 1930 and 1932.

5. Opposed Indian Industrial commission report and pleaded that imperial

council to abolish indentured Labour, saying it was just another form of

slavery.

6. He protested against the Simon Commission in 1928. He took part in

the Salt Satyagraha, which was launched by Mahatma Gandhi in 1930.

He has popularised the Satyameva Jayate (Truth alone will triumph)

slogan.

Gandhi

1. SA ordeal

1. Gandhi explored the ideals of Civil disobedience, Non-

cooperation and Satyagraha for the first time in South Africa

during his struggle against racist and arbitrary laws such as

transvaal act and found these methods very effective. This was the

basis in which he carried entire freedom struggle.

2. He understood the irrational founding of discrimination when he

was thrown out of train. He then formed the idea of inclusive

India.

3. He understood that leaders not only has to face ire from opponents

but must be prepared to face ire from its followers too. This was

great leadership lesson he learnt in South Africa.

4. Life in South Africa has gifted him opportunity to inhale the

thoughts of great global leaders such as Socrates, Plato, Tolstoy,

Ruskin etc. This wisdom of internalisation was reflected in his

leadership role in India’s national liberalisation.

5. He understood that secularism must be foundation of freedom

struggle when muslim merchants in South Africa joined him in his

fight.

6. He understood the importance of constructive social work,

building a community of disciplined and selfless social servants,

uniting Indians of all faiths, castes and linguistic communities in a

common struggle for justice.

2. Gandhi vs British

1. Gandhi was never against the evil doer but against the evil. So his

tools of struggle was against the might (force) of britishers, at the

same time not taking the advantage of their plight.

2. For example, during the World Wars and Boer wars Gandhiji

supported Britishers because he doesn’t want to get independence

on the misery of British Govt.

3. This made Gandhi’s image more refined among British

parliamentarians and helped the conservative and labour party

realise the gravity of freedom struggle in India.

4. Also, Gandhi’s decision of suggesting to make Govt of India Act

1935 in sync of British Constitution led the Britishers in dilemma

that, Gandhi is not against them but against the their ill-treating of

Indians and subjugating Indians as second class nations.

3. Gandhi’s political thoughts

1. Ahimsa: His idea of Ahimsa encompassed not only non-violence

in physical actions but also in thoughts, speech etc. He suggested

incorporating this concept not only in political sphere but also in

social, economic and other spheres. Gandhi’s idea of Ahimsa was

inspired by his understanding of religions like Hinduism,

Buddhism, Jainism, Christianity, Islam etc.

2. Swarajya: In his book Hind Swarajya, Gandhi mentions that

Swarajya is not simply liberation from foreign rule but ensuring a

life of dignity and equality of opportunity for all individuals

which is possible in Ram Rajya. Gandhian idea of Swarajya is

influenced by Upanishads, Ramcharitmanas and also by ideas of

Aurobindo Ghosh.

3. Satyagraha: Satyagraha meant a fight for truth. Since the fight is

for truth the methodology employed must also be noble. It is

inspired by the ideals of Swami Vivekananda who exhorted

individuals to rise up, awake and not stop until the goal is

achieved. The tools of Gandhian Satyagraha was Non

Cooperation, Civil Disobedience which was inspired by HD

Thoreau’s idea of right of individuals to resist if the state does

wrong.

4. Views on state: Gandhi was anarchist believing that state is

unnecessary evil, incompatible with the idea of non-violence.

Even medium state according to him needed some sort of coercion

and policing. State according to him is incompatible with the idea

of Swarajya.

5. Sarvodaya: This is Gandhian alternative to Marxist Socialism.

Gandhi believed in the idea of class cooperation in place of class

conflict. He gave the Trusteeship theory to ensure that fruits of

development are well dispersed. Gandhian idea of Sarvodaya is

inspired by John Ruskin’s book Unto this Last.

4. How Gandhi could unite people

1. He truly cared about people. Not just Indians, but, everyone.

When the Mahatma announced the call to boycott British clothes,

he took the time to visit the mills in Manchester and apologise to

the workers. The British weavers never let him apologise and

actually cheered his boycott.

2. Most political leaders either stay off the religion or use religion

for divisive ends. Gandhi did neither. He actively used the religion

to unite people.

3. By the time Mahatma Gandhi entered the Indian politics in 1914,

he had already spent 21 years in the South African civil rights

movement. He had the academic credibility from London and the

street credibility from South Africa. Then he spent years touring

India and observed from a very perceptive lens.

4. Mahatma adhered to truth no matter what comes. Mahatma’s truth

and character inspired Businessmen, world leaders, judges,

bankers, actors. He was an absolute novelty (for a lawyer turned

politician).

5. There is an immense power in simplicity. Steve Jobs was greatly

inspired by the Mahatma’s simplicity. Mahatma kept the whole

movement very simple and transparent. He connected with masses

well because of such simplicity.

6. Gandhi simplified revolution to a DIY (Do it Yourself) sort of

culture. He made people create salt in the coastal areas. He made

people create their own clothes. He made people do very simple

things as mark of protest. People were completely involved and

enchanted. Other leaders talked, sermoned or threw stones.

Gandhi redefined revolution.

7. From the Day 1, until the end, Mahatma was at the grassroots. He

had little interest in parliaments, assemblies, roundtables and bills.

He travelled through trains, met people and bonded with the

common man.

8. He was a person who said what he thought, and did what he said.

There was a complete harmony between thought, words and

action. This completely attracted people. Gandhi did not celebrate

hard earned independence. While whole India was watching Delhi

and the exit of British, Gandhi was 1000s of miles away. He was

in a corner, saving people from crime and violence. While other

leaders cheered from the safety of Delhi, Gandhi was saving

people in the slums. His mission was not done yet.

Gandhi and Gokhale

1. Gopal Krishna Gokhale was an outstanding intellectual. Gandhiji was a

devout nationalist, a trained lawyer and a great humanitarian.

2. Gokhale wanted to transform the Legislative council into an open

university for imparting political education to the people. Gandhi

instead preferred social ground work and mass mobilisations to

politically educate the people.

3. In 1899, Gokhale was elected to Bombay Legislative Council. Gandhi

did not have a political career like this.

4. Gokhale was primarily not concerned with independence, but with

Social reform. Gandhi, on the other hand, wanted both.

5. Gokhale’s budget speeches and his economic knowledge kept British

officials on their toes. Gandhiji’s command in masses, his integrity,

simplicity and commitment kept British officials on the toes.

6. Gandhi did not support Gokhale’s belief in western political institutions

despite considering as his political mentor. Hence, he did not become a

member of Gokhale’s famous Servants of India society.

Sardar Vallabhai Patel

1. Popularly known as Iron man of India, his contribution is vital not only

in struggle for independence but also after independence.

2. Contributions

1. Integration of country: He travelled the breadth and length of

country and convinced princely states to join union of India. He

acted with determination, vision and statesmanship and made

India united without any bloodshed.

2. Kashmir: Swift action in Kashmir and Lakshadweep thereby

forcing back the Pakistani forces from Kashmir and integrating

Lakshadweep in India.

3. Modern all India service: He established the modern all India

services and therefore, remembered as patron saint of India’s civil

servants. He also protected the privileges of Indian civil service

officers who were deemed to be comprised on account of their

previous service to the play.

4. Minority rights: He played crucial role in constituent assembly

for supporting the fundamental rights to minorities.

5. Cooperative: He helped in establishing Kheda milk cooperative

society and promoted liberalised industrial policy resolution of

1948 thus focusing on economic self-reliance.

6. China: He acted as a balancing wheel to Nehru’s over emphasis

on Sino-Indian relations as he foresaw the dangers of Chinese

occupation of Tibet.

3. Criticism

1. Patel is sometimes criticised for promoting the capitalist class and

opposing Nationalisation of industries. He had close relationship

with industrialists like Birla, Sarabhai, etc.

2. Maulana Azad criticised Patel for inciting partition. According to

him, Patel harsh attitude in dealing with muslims sow the seeds of

partition.

3. He did not desist from using force or police action for integration

of states into India. He believed in realpolitik and retaliation by

force.

4. His image was a little tilted towards communalism and fringe

groups although he banned some organisations after Gandhiji’s

assassination.

4. Patel vs Nehru

1. Princely states conundrum: Patel played a pivotal role in

ensuring that India did not get fragmented post British departure.

Nehru did not like satisfying the egos of Princes by measures like

Privy purses, etc. Patel used both coercive and conciliatory to

ensure integration of princely states.

2. Foreign policy: Patel was a pragmatist while Nehru was an

idealist. Patel recognized that China always had expansionist

tendencies and advised Nehru to proceed with caution. Nehru

however felt that there was no fundamental conflict between the

two nations and went ahead with the idea of ‘Hindi Chini Bhai

Bhai’, an idea shattered in 1962 war.

3. Attitude towards civil services: Patel was a wily administrator

and is regarded as the Father of All India Services. While, Nehru

had disregard and pessimistic attitude towards civil service.

4. Secular credentials: Nehru up held the secular fabric of the

country post independence realising that inter faith tolerance is

very critical in the Idea of India. Although Sardar was also

secular, but sometimes he was associated with some communal

groups. But he banned communal groups post Gandhi’s death.

Panchsheel

1. Panchsheel principles are a set of principles to govern relations between

states. These principles were born to ensure a world where nations can

co-exist and prosper together in peace and harmony.

2. Five principles

1. Mutual respect for each other’s territorial integrity and

sovereignty.

2. Mutual non-aggression.

3. Mutual non-interference in each other’s internal affairs.

4. Equality and cooperation for mutual benefit.

5. Peaceful coexistence.

3. An underlying assumption of the five principles was that newly

independent states after decolonisation would be able to develop a new

and more principled approach to international relations. The five

principles of Panchsheel provide a basis for not only interstate relations

but also the construction of a new international order.

4. One cardinal principle of Panchsheel has been equality and mutual

benefit, which is opposed to one-upmanship. Ex: As China is now a

bigger power, it is all the more appropriate that it displays sensitivity

and reciprocity in multilateral institutions like the UNSC and the

BRICS. It is high time that China goes beyond its stated position that it

understands and appreciates India’s aspiration to play greater role in the

world, and comes out with clear proposal for UNSC reforms.

5. Similarly the two countries should work together in concert on issues

such as climate change and fighting the menace of terrorism. The new

world equilibrium needs to emerge, recognising the global shift of

power.

Princely states

1. The government’s approach towards princely states was guided by

following considerations.

2. They were

1. The people of most of the princely states clearly wanted to

become part of the Indian Union. Government was prepared to be

flexible in giving autonomy to some of these regions.

2. In the back drop of partition, the integration and consolidation of

the territorial boundaries of the nation had assumed supreme

importance.

3. How was it blood less

1. Patel’s first step was to appeal to the princes to accede to the

Indian Union in three subjects which affected the common

interests of the country, namely, foreign relations, defence and

communications.

2. Next step of Patel was to convince Mountbatten to bat for India.

Mountbatten, in a speech to chamber of princes, finally persuaded

the Princes.

3. Privy purses, upholding succession to throne, flying of personal

flags were used as tools of persuasion.

4. States not ready to accede to India where made to sign instrument

of accession through diplomacy. Ex: Travancore, Jodhpur,

Bhopal, Junagadh, etc. Ruler of Kashmir was made to sign

instrument of accession before offering any military assistance.

5. Prolonged negotiations with French led to Pondicherry becoming

part of India.

4. Not completely blood less

1. People organised a popular movement in Junagadh, forced the

Nawab to flee and established a provisional government. Indian

troops thereafter marched into the state. A plebiscite was held in

the state which went overwhelmingly in favour of joining India.

2. In case of Hyderabad, Nizam of Hyderabad denied accession to

India. A strong peasant struggle and satyagraha by state congress

had developed in the Telangana region. In 1948, the Indian army

moved into Hyderabad and freed it from Nizam control. The

operation was called operation Polo.

3. Indian troops marched in Goa under operation Vijay and

Portuguese surrendered without fight.

4. After the formation of Union of India the major foreign enclaves

were French and Portuguese. On gaining independence India

opened negotiations with them for the transfer of territories.

5. French enclaves

1. Integration of French territories was done peacefully. After the

formation of Union of India, the rising nationalism in the people

and shift of French India socialist party to pro-merger, forced

French government to sign a referendum with India.

2. In 1954, the four enclaves Karaikal, Mahi, Yanam and

Puducherry were transferred to the Indian Union and became the

Union territory of Pondicherry.

6. Portuguese enclaves

1. Dadra and Nagar Haveli: Portugal resisted diplomatic solutions

and refused to transfer power to Union of India. Volunteers of

United Front of Goans and occupied Dadra and Nagar Haveli in

1954 and displaced Portuguese rule.

2. Goa, Daman and Diu: Satyagraha and revolts by Indian

nationalists were suppressed by Portuguese government. Indian

government tried to raise the issue before the international

community. But Portugal resisted all overtures from India. In

1961, in Operation Vijay the Indian Army liberated Goa, Daman

and Diu by force.

Linguistic states

1. Our national movement had promised the linguistic principle as the

basis of formation of states. In fact after the Nagpur session of

Congress in 1920 the principle was recognised as the basis of the

reorganisation of the Indian National Congress party itself.

2. Things changed after Independence and Partition. Our leaders felt that

carving out states on the basis of language might lead to disruption and

disintegration. It was also felt that this would draw attention away from

other social and economic challenges that the country faced.

3. But whatever options anybody else might have been considering were

put to rest by the fast-unto-death of Potti Sreeramulu for a separate

province of the Telugu people, free from Madras state. Sheer

mismanagement of the administration caused the death of Potti

Sreeramulu, leading to widespread protests and finally the creation of

Andhra Pradesh.

4. Language did not, however, remain the sole basis of organisation of

states. In later years sub-regions raised demands for separate states on

the basis of a separate regional culture or complaints of regional

imbalance in development.

5. Linguistic state creation served the following purposes

1. Language gives a mathematical basis for division. States will not

fight over for the border territories.

2. Led to nurturing and promotion of the regional language and

culture, strengthening the country overall. Above all, the linguistic

states underlined the acceptance of the principle of diversity.

3. Led to better interaction among people of the states and with their

democratically elected governments. A linguistically

heterogeneous state would have difficulty in getting messages

across to its people.

4. Led to better penetration of power to grass root level and local

governments and better consolidation of democracy. A non

English or non Hindi speaking person can aspire to become a

political leader, which was difficult earlier.

5. Led to consolidation of the federal structure. People realised that it

was easy and peaceful to be Hindi-speaking and Indian, Tamil-

speaking and Indian, Gujarati-speaking and Indian, etc.

6. Led to growth of English as a medium of inter-state and State-

Centre communication, which would have been difficult had the

states not been more or less linguistically homogenous.

6. But reorganisation did not resolve all the problems relating to linguistic

conflicts. Disputes over boundaries between different states, linguistic

minorities and economic issues such as sharing of waters, and power

and surplus food still persist. Linguistic chauvinism also finds

occasional expression. But the reorganisation has removed a major

factor affecting cohesion of the country.

7. Lessons from regional conflict

1. Even after six decades of independence, some of the issues of

national integration are not fully resolved. We have seen that

regional aspirations ranging from demands of statehood and

economic development to autonomy and separation keep coming

up.

2. First and the most elementary lesson is that regional aspirations

are very much a part of democratic politics. Even in countries like

UK and Srilanka, the regional autonomy demands exist. A large

and diverse democracy like India must deal with regional

aspirations on a regular basis. Nation building is an ongoing

process.

3. The second lesson is that the best way to respond to regional

aspirations is through democratic negotiations rather than through

force. The example of Mizoram shows how political settlement

can resolve the problem of separatism effectively.

4. The third lesson is about the significance of power sharing. It is

not sufficient to have a formal democratic structure. Besides that,

groups and parties from the region need to be given share in

power at the state level. If regions are not given a share in the

national level decision making, the feeling of injustice and

alienation can spread.

5. The fourth lesson is that regional imbalance in economic

development contributes to the feeling of regional discrimination.

If some states remain poor and others develop rapidly, it leads to

regional imbalances and inter-regional migrations.

6. Finally, these cases make us appreciate the farsightedness of the

makers of our Constitution in dealing with questions of diversity.

The federal system adopted by India is a flexible arrangement.

While most of the states have equal powers, there are special

provisions for some states like J&K and the states in the North-

East.

8. What distinguishes India from many other countries that face similar

challenges is that the constitutional framework in India is much more

flexible and accommodative. Therefore, regional aspirations are not

encouraged to espouse separatism. Thus, politics in India has succeeded

in accepting regionalism as part and parcel of democratic politics.

Community Development Programme (CDP)

1. Programme was designed for rural upliftment. The basic aims were to

increase in agricultural production, improvement in communications,

rural health, hygiene and in village education and uplift of backward

sections. The emphasis was on self reliance and self help by people,

popular participation and responsibility.

2. All the districts of the country were divided into Development Blocks

and a Block Development Officer (BDO) was made in charge of each

block. Below the BDO were appointed the workers called Village Level

Workers (VLW) who were responsible to keep in touch with 10-12

villages. So, a nationwide structure was created.

3. The programme achieved considerable results in better seeds,

fertilisers, and so on, resulting in agricultural development, greater food

production, increased construction of roads, tanks, schools and PHCs,

etc.

4. But it failed in its major objective of involving people as full

participants of developmental activity. It did not simulate self help,

instead it increased expectations from and reliance on the Government.

5. It gradually acquired an official orientation, became part of the

bureaucratic framework and came to be administered from above as a

routine activity with the BDOs becoming replicas of the traditional sub-

divisional officers and the Village level workers becoming

administrative underlings.

6. Limitations of panchayat raj (1952)

1. The state governments showed little enthusiasm for it, devolved

no real power on the panchayati samitis, curbed their powers and

functions and starved them of funds.

2. The bureaucracy too did not slacken its grip on rural

administration at different levels. Panchayats were also politicized

and used by politicians to gather factional support in the villages.

Privy purses

1. The Privy purse was a payment made to the royal families of erstwhile

princely states as part of their agreements to integrate with India

whereby they lost all ruling rights. They are allowed to retain certain

private property, and given a grant in heredity or government

allowance, measured on the basis of the extent, revenue and potential of

the merging state.

2. At the time of accession, there was little criticism of these privileges

since integration and consolidation was the primary aim. Yet, hereditary

privileges were not consonant with the principles of equality and socio-

economic justice laid down in the Constitution of India.

3. Nehru had expressed dissatisfaction over the matter time and again.

Following the 1967 elections, Indira Gandhi supported the demand that

the government should abolish privy purses. Morarji Desai called the

move morally wrong and amounting to a breach of faith with the

princes.

4. In the 1971 election, the Constitution was amended to remove legal

obstacles for abolition of privy purses.

Chipko movement

1. The movement practiced the Gandhian methods of satyagraha and non-

violent resistance, through the act of hugging trees to protect them from

being felled.

2. It was started in the early 1970s in the Garhwal Himalayas of

Uttarakhand and by the 1980s the movement had spread throughout

India and led to the formulation of people sensitive forest policies,

which put a stop to the open felling of trees in regions as far as the

Vindhyas and the Western Ghats.

3. One of Chipko’s most salient features was the mass participation of

female villagers. It is being seen increasingly as an eco-feminism

movement. Women were not only its backbone, but also its mainstay,

because they were the ones most affected by the rampant deforestation,

which led to a lack of firewood and fodder as well as water for drinking

and irrigation.

4. Women became primary stakeholders in a majority of the afforestation,

they set up cooperatives to guard local forests, and organised fodder

production at rates conducive to local environment. They followed land

rotation methods and helped replant degraded land and established and

ran nurseries stocked with species they selected.

5. It occurred at a time when there was hardly any environmental

movement in the developing world and it inspired many future

environmentalists, environmental protests and movements by helping to

slow down the rapid deforestation, expose vested interests, increase

ecological awareness and demonstrate the viability of people power. It

created precedent for non-violent protest.

6. Women held sustained agitations against the habit of alcoholism and

broadened the agenda of the movement to cover other social issues.

7. The movement took up economic issues of landless forest workers and

asked for guarantees of minimum wage. They demanded control over

natural resources like land, water, and forests. They wanted the

government to provide low cost materials to small scale industries and

ensure development of the region without disturbing the ecological

balance.

8. Chipko movement also expressed the resentment of hill villagers

against a distant government headquartered in the plains that seemed

indifferent and hostile to their concerns. So concerns about economy,

ecology and political representation underlay the Chipko movement.

Why didn’t NATO react when India captured Goa

1. Nehru timed the aggression within months of JFK taking over. The new

administration in USA was focused on Bay of Pigs operation in Cuba.

And adding to that JFK sympathised with India unlike his predecessor

2. US didn’t want NATO to be seen as siding imperial powers and lose

political capital and credibility at a very critical time in Cuba and

Vietnam.

3. Most of the world from newly liberated colonies in Africa, West Asia,

East Asia to USSR and Soviet bloc countries to even China supported

India. Even common wealth members stayed neutral.

4. USA was waging a war in Vietnam. So going against India was

considered a great disaster to USA. For most, Goa was too unimportant

compared to the action in other places.

5. Portugal and US tried to use the UN for an action. Thanks to USSR

Veto, UN Security Council refused to vote against India.

6. Salazar (dictator of Portugal) was not a likeable figure and as an

autocratic dictator he didn’t have many friends in the liberal minded

members of NATO.

Indo-China war

1. Chinese attack on India is due to India’s unpreparedness and overtly

aggressive China coupled with compulsions of war.

2. India’s mistakes

1. Nehru failed to settle the boundary disputes in the Himalayan

borders (NEFA and Aksai Chin) with China at reasonable

concessions given by China due to public pressure.

2. Nehru pursued the Forward policy since 1959 which provoked

Chinese to attack in self defence.

3. Granting of asylum to the Dalai Lama provoked China and many

border skirmishes happened then after.

4. Improper and inadequate diplomatic communication with China in

the run up to the 1962 war.

5. Indian armed forces were weak and were not adequate enough to

act as a deterrent for China.

3. China’s mistakes

1. Unnecessary aggression and violated the Panchsheel principles.

2. Although, India helped China to get a permanent seat in the UN,

China were not sympathetic to India.

3. Asylum to Dalai Lama was on humanitarian grounds rather than

on interfering into internal trouble to China.

4. Nehru could see foresee minor skirmishes on the India-China

border but never anticipated a full blown war by China with

Soviet support.

5. Therefore, he found it futile to spend on military at the cost of

social and economic development in India.

4. Consequences

1. The China war dented India’s image at abroad. India had to

approach the Americans and the British for military assistance to

tide over the crisis.

2. It induced a sense of national humiliation and at the same time

strengthened a spirit of nationalism.

3. Weaknesses in Army clearly came out. India’s defence spending

increased from the very next budget and efforts to strengthen the

Army were taken.

4. India and China relations damaged and a sense of mutual

suspicion started from then on.

5. The war with China alerted Indian leadership to the volatile

situation in the Northeast region. The process of its reorganisation

began soon after the China war. Nagaland was granted statehood,

Manipur and Tripura, though Union Territories, were given the

right to elect their own legislative assemblies.

Tashkent declaration

1. Three weeks of fighting in 1965 has done immense damage to

economies of both countries. Apart from loss of life and costly military

equipment, resources urgently needed for economic development were

drained and defence budgets mounted again.

2. The Tashkent Declaration was a peace agreement between India and

Pakistan after the Indo-Pakistan war of 1965. Peace had been achieved

by the intervention of the great powers who pushed the two nations to a

cease fire for fears the conflict could escalate and draw in other

powers.

3. Details

1. The Tashkent conference, under UN, American and Soviet

pressure, compelled India to give away the conquered region in

Pakistan and maintain the 1949 ceasefire line in Kashmir

2. Both sides agreed to withdraw from all occupied areas and return

to their pre-war August positions.

3. In the case of India this meant, removing troops from strategic

Haji Pir pass, from which Pakistani rangers could enter the

Kashmir valley easily.

4. This also meant India giving up other strategic gains in Kashmir.

5. Shastri agreed to these unfavourable terms as other option was the

resumption of mutually disastrous war and that would also have

meant losing USSR support on Kashmir issue in UNSC and in

supply of defence equipment, especially MiG planes and medium

and heavy tanks.

4. Lessons learnt from 1965 war

1. The Pakistan infiltrators failed to generate support from

Kashmiris. India’s had passed its first major test of secularism as

their was no communal trouble during the war. Indian muslims

gave whole hearted support to the war.

2. In 1965 Indian commanders were new in handling brigade and

division sized forces in battles. The war experience helped in

consolidating organisation and leadership.

3. Since 1965, there were marked changes in the way government

coordinated with the 3 service chiefs.

4. Strengths and weaknesses of the three divisions of military were

understood and worked upon, which proved crucial during the

1971 war. The imperative of joint warfare in which the Army, the

Navy and the Air Force operated to a cohesive plan towards

common objectives became a key ingredient of war plans.

5. The role of technology in the outcome of wars was carefully

observed and built into military doctrines.

5. It also made the Indian political leadership more mature in dealing with

major powers to safeguard India’s interests diplomatically.

Bangladesh war of liberation

1. It happened in 1971. Pakistan did not recognise democratically elected

Govt in east Pakistan. When people took to streets, Pakistan army

launched massive attack, suppressing the revolt. As a result, Bengali

military, paramilitary and civilians formed the Mukti Bahini (liberation

army), which engaged in guerrilla warfare against Pakistani forces.

2. The Pakistan Army, in collusion with religious extremist militias

(Razakars, Al-Badr and Al-Shams), engaged in the systematic genocide

and atrocities on Bengali nationalists, intellectuals, youth and religious

minorities.

3. Why did war erupt

1. Although East Pakistan had a larger population, West Pakistan

dominated the divided country politically and received more

money from the common budget. Bengalis were under-

represented in the Pakistan military, bureaucracy and technical

posts.

2. Moreover, despite huge defence spending, East Pakistan received

none of the benefits, such as contracts, purchasing and military

support jobs.

3. Pakistan did not recognise democratically elected Govt of east

Pakistan and crushed the peaceful revolt.

4. In 1948, Jinnah declared that Urdu would be the federal language

of Pakistan. But Urdu was prevalent only in western region of

Pakistan while dominant language in east Pakistan was Bengali.

So, it was viewed as an attempt to suppress the culture of the

eastern wing.

4. Operation Searchlight

1. A planned military operation carried out by the Pakistan Army to

curb the east-Bengali nationalist movement by taking control of

the major cities on and then eliminating all opposition.

2. Before the beginning of the operation, all foreign journalists were

deported from East Pakistan.

5. Why did India join war

1. The number of refugees from Bangladesh has reached nearly 10

million which put huge strain on the economic resources of the

country. It also lead to political instability. So India understood

that only way to rehabilitate them is to liberate Bangladesh.

2. There was a wave of sympathy among Indians about brutality of

the Pakistan Army.

3. Liberation of Bangladesh will lead to easing of tensions on the

eastern border. It would reduce our expenditure on army on the

eastern front.

4. Indian Govt not only gave sanctuary to Bangladesh Govt in exile,

but the Indian army actively trained Mukti Bahini and also gave

aid in terms of men and material.

5. Pakistan launched military attack on India in the western front,

which started India’s active engagement in war with Pakistan.

Simla agreement

1. After the 1971 war of Bangladesh independence, India signed Simla

agreement with Pakistan to reduce tensions and put an end to the war.

2. Reasons why Simla agreement was signed

1. India realised that a mutually arrived at Indo-Pak settlement was

necessary for durable peace. A hostile Pakistan would force India

to maintain a high level of defence expenditure.

2. Soviet Union already signed a pact with India in supporting

Bangladesh. US and UK sent their forces in aid of Pakistan. By

continuing war, India would have to confront a pack of

superpowers which was unaffordable.

3. Pakistan was pleading with the world community and gained

international sympathy. India had to release the 90000 POW to

maintain its image and not to antagonise the world community.

4. China vetoed UN resolutions to recognise the sovereignty of

Bangladesh citing the Prisoners of War (PoW). India thus had to

give in somewhat to get Bangladesh its due.

5. Having too harsh conditions on Pakistan would weaken the only

democratic hope Pakistan had. From India’s perspective it was

much better to deal with their civilian government than to deal

with their military.

6. The agreement was the result of resolve of both the countries to

put an end to the conflict and confrontation that have hitherto

marred their relations. It conceived the steps to be taken for

further normalisation of mutual relations and it also laid down the

principles that should govern their future relations.

3. Terms of agreement

1. India agreed to return the Pakistan territory it had occupied,

except some strategic points in Kashmir.

2. Pakistan agreed to respect the existing LoC in Kashmir and

undertook not to after it unilaterally by force or threat of force.

3. The two countries also agreed to settle all their disputes through

bilateral negotiations without any outside mediation by the UN or

any other power. Also both countries accepted the UN charter to

govern the 2 countries relationship.

4. India also agreed to return the prisoners of war to Pakistan but this

was to be contingent upon a Bangladesh-Pakistan agreement.

5. The agreement gave recognition to an independent Bangladesh.

6. Steps to promote trade and commerce, science and technology and

resumption of postal and telegraphic services.

4. Why it was a lost opportunity

1. Prisoners of war were returned unconditionally to Pakistan.

2. India pulled its forces inside the cease fire line of 1965.

3. India could not persuade Pakistan to accept LoC as international

line.

4. No permanent resolution of Kashmir issue. There was no explicit

mention of Kashmir issue.

Operation Meghdoot

1. Operation Meghdoot was a military operation to capture the Siachen

Glacier in the disputed Kashmir region, precipitating the Siachen

conflict. This military operation was unique as the first assault launched

in the world’s highest battlefield.

2. The Siachen glacier became a bone of contention following a vague

demarcation of territory as per the Simla Agreement of 1972, which did

not exactly specify who had the authority over the Siachen Glacier area.

As a result, both nations claimed the barren heights and the Siachen

Glacier.

3. The operation and the continued cost of maintaining logistics to the

area is a major drain on both militaries.

4. Pakistan launched an all out assault in 1987 and again in 1989 to

capture the ridge and passes held by India.

Kargil conflict

1. Kargil conflict was an armed clash between India and Pakistan backed

militants due to their intrusion in the Indian territory of Kargil district.

The Kargil conflict drew attention worldwide for the reason that only

one year prior to that, both India and Pakistan had attained nuclear

capability. However, this conflict remained confined only to the Kargil

region.

2. Effects of the war

1. IRNSS: Since India was denied support of foreign navigation

systems during the conflict, a need for country’s own navigation

system was felt in which took the form of Indian Regional

Navigation satellite system.

2. Defence budget: The very next budget after the war increased the

financial allocations to the defence sector.

3. RAW: The RAW was heavily criticised for its inability to predict

any intrusion and no. of infiltrators.

4. Proxy war: From then, Pakistan has been avoiding direct

conflicts with India but increased proxy attacks.

3. Effects on Indo-Pak relation

1. Soon after the conflict, the government of Pakistan was taken over

by the Pakistan Army led by the Army Chief, General Parvez

Musharraf.

2. Trade, commerce ties of the countries took a backseat after the

conflict.

3. Kashmir issue got a new rejuvenation after the Kargil conflict.

4. Fear of nuclear conflict arose between both the countries.

4. Reactions of international community

1. G8 nations supported India and condemned the Pakistani action.

2. China insisted on moving into pre-conflict positions and solve

border disputes amicably.

Delhi declaration

1. The Delhi Declaration, issued by Rajiv Gandhi and Mr. Gorbachev,

called for the complete destruction of nuclear arsenals before the end of

the century, and asserted the importance of solving problems in a non-

violent way.

2. It was a landmark document, not just in the context of its advocacy of

complete nuclear disarmament but it also made history through the

Soviet ideological acceptance for the first time of the concept of non-

violence.

3. The Delhi Declaration strengthened the philosophical, political, moral,

humanitarian and ethical aspects of the principles of non-use of force in

interstate relations. In the nuclear world, it is essential to rebuild

interstate relations in such a manner that confrontation gives way to

cooperation and conflict is resolved through peaceful political means

alone, not by military means.

4. However, gradually people across the world started realising that the

document was a quantum jump towards the philosophy of not merely

co-existence but global existence. The Delhi Declaration appeals to the

global community to accept non-violence and non-use of force as the

cardinal principles of international behaviour.

Peace treaty with Soviet

1. This treaty played a very significant role in safeguarding India’s

sovereignty and territorial integrity.

2. The relevance of the treaty can be judged only by the geopolitical and

strategic context under which it was signed. There was a growing

China-USA-Pakistan axis. If India were to wage a war on Pakistan, it

may face all the three powers.

3. In this backdrop, India and USSR moved closer to ink the historic Indo-

Soviet treaty of peace to neutralise the effect of the emerging axis and

defend their vital geopolitical interests.

4. Treaty had effectively restrained Pakistan and her allies from

embarking on a course of military adventurism in the subcontinent and

would continue to act as a deterrent against the hegemonic goals.

5. It also improved our relationship with Soviet which played a great role

in solving energy crisis of India to an extent.

6. It was also a shift from non-alignment in our foreign policy to

realistically protect our interests.

Emergency

1. Normal democratic functioning resumed within a short span of time

after emergency. Thus one lesson of emergency is that it is extremely

difficult to do away with democracy in India.

2. It brought out some ambiguities regarding the emergency provision in

the Constitution that have been rectified now.

3. The emergency made everyone more aware of the value of civil

liberties. The Courts too, have taken an active role after the emergency

in protecting the civil liberties of the individuals. This is a response to

the inability of the judiciary to protect civil liberties effectively during

the emergency. Many civil liberty organisations came up after this

experience.

4. Many issues that emerged during emergency still remain. There is a

tension between routine functioning of a democratic government and

the continuous political protests by parties and groups.

5. The actual implementation of the emergency rule took place through

the police and the administration. These institutions could not function

independently. They were turned into political instruments of the ruling

party.

Punjab

1. Khalistan movement was a separatist movement in Punjab (1966 to

1985). Roots of Khalistan movement are found in the various

developments in Punjab region since 1947 independence.

2. Causes

1. Partition excesses: The various riots and the excesses suffered by

Sikh community during Partition of India, made them to feel

isolated. Development of feeling of communal fear from the other

religious communities.

2. Language Politics: During 1950s whole India came under the

demand for reorganisation of states on linguistic basis. On

language, one group was demanding Punjabi other for Hindi.

Even question of script became an issue.

3. Communal Politics: Communal politicians from both

communities made this religious issue, which further enhanced

hostility between community. In the late 1970s, a series of clashes

erupted among Sikhs, Nirankaris and Hindus. The injustice rallied

the Sikhs behind Bhindranwale call for retribution and revenge

spread.

4. Centralisation: Over centralisation of polity has led to

resentment among the state. This contributed towards challenging

central authority and rising prestige of Bhindranwale.

5. Economic: Green revolution, migration of labourers, lack of

industrialisation in Punjab has all led to strengthening the

movement.

3. Green revolution and Punjab crisis

1. Green Revolution in India began in the 1960s, through the

introduction of high-yield crop varieties and application of

modern agricultural techniques, and led to an increase in food

production in India. The impact of Green revolution was most

prominent in Punjab which came to be known as the granary of

India.

2. It led to increased prosperity in the countryside among farmers. At

the same time, it contributed to increased westernisation of

Punjabi society. Demand for status items such as TVs, radios and

motorbikes increased among the newly rich. At the same time,

social evils such as alcoholism and drugs consumption also

increased in the wake of green revolution.

3. Thus, a fear arose among orthodox sections that Punjabi society,

especially its youth, was losing its touch with religious values. To

counter the westernising tendency, religious revival movements

sprung up in Punjab. The movements aim was to rid Punjabi

society of the evils brought about by increased westernisation and

to instil religious values among the youth.

4. In the 1970s, Punjabi society also faced an economic crisis due to

stagnating agricultural yields and increased migration by

labourers from other states, which led to conflict between them

and the poorer sections of Punjabi society. To this, the problem of

youth unemployment can also be added. Due to its strategic

location on the Pakistan border, the Indian government had

consciously avoided setting up many industries in Punjab.

5. These movements now started advocating the idea of an

independent Sikh nation, which could be freed from outside

religious and cultural influences.

4. Operation blue star

1. Operation Blue Star was a military operation to remove Sikh

militants who were amassing weapons in the Golden temple

complex in Amritsar.

2. The roots of operation Blue Star can be traced from the Khalistan

Movement. The Khalistan Movement was a political Sikh

nationalist movement that wanted to create an independent state

for Sikh people, inside the current North-Western Republic of

India.

3. The terrorists bullied the press and judiciary, they killed the

police officials and those suspected of cooperating with the police

and administration, they issued successful diktats to administrators

to do their bidding, they collected parallel taxes, they silenced

intellectuals and political workers, coerced peasants in giving

them shelter.

4. This all were designed not only to facilitate their activities but also

to convince the people of Punjab that they had the capacity to

challenge the Indian state and that they were the rulers of

tomorrow. These terrorists were eliminated through operation blue

star.

5. Criticism

1. The use of artillery in the congested inner city of Amritsar proved

deadly to many civilian bystanders living near Harmandir Sahib.

The media blackout throughout the Punjab resulted in widespread

doubt regarding the official stories and aided many rumour.

2. The choice of time of attack by Government, the heavy casualties,

the loss of property, and allegations of human rights violations by

army personnel. S. K. Sinha, the GOC of the Indian Army who

was sacked just before the attack, had advised the government

against the operation.

3. The timing of operation blue star coincided with a Sikh religious

day. The Sikhs from all over the world visit the temple on this

day. So, the casualties inflicted on Sikhs were maximum.

4. During the operation, a number of Sikh literature were destroyed

and the temple itself bore the brunt of armed attacks. Innocent

boys were allegedly rounded up all over the state with the

ostensible reason of attacking terrorism.

6. Peace afterwards

1. In July 1985, Rajiv Gandhi reached an agreement with Harchand

Singh Longowal, then the President of the Akali Dal. This

agreement, known as the Rajiv Gandhi - Longowal Accord or the

Punjab Accord, was a step towards bringing normalcy to Punjab.

2. It was agreed that Chandigarh would be transferred to Punjab, a

separate commission would be appointed to resolve the border

dispute between Punjab and Haryana, and a tribunal would be set

up to decide the sharing of Ravi-Beas river water among Punjab,

Haryana and Rajasthan.

3. The agreement also provided for compensation to and better

treatment of those affected by the militancy in Punjab and the

withdrawal of the application of AFSPA act in Punjab.

4. However, peace did not come easily or immediately. The cycle of

violence continued nearly for a decade. Militancy and counter

insurgency violence led to excesses by the police and violations of

human rights.

5. The central government had to impose President’s rule in the State

and the normal electoral and political process was suspended.

Militancy was eventually eradicated by the security forces.

Land reforms

1. Land reforms involve redistribution of land i.e taking away land from

rich and distributing it to poor. It also involves abolishing

intermediaries such as Zamindar, Jagirdar etc., land ceilings, tenancy

reforms, computerisation of land records, forest rights act, land

consolidation, etc.

2. Before British

1. Private ownership of land did not exist. Land belonged to the

village community. Land was never treated as the property of the

kings. Land matters and civil disputes were adjudicated by

Panchayat within the village.

2. Farmers usually grew various food crops wheat, maize, paddy,

jowar, bajra and pulses.

3. During British rule

1. Introduced private ownership of land. This divided village into

Landlords, Tenants and Labourers. Because of this material

transformation the agrarian society in India witnessed profound

social, economic, political, cultural and psychological change.

2. With generations, land kept dividing among sons. So, land got

fragmented resulting in diseconomies of scale, lower production.

3. Farmer had to approach British courts for matters related to

revenue, property attachment, debt-mortgage etc. So, Panchayats

lost their power and prestige.

4. Since British demand revenue in cash, farmers resorted to

growing cash crops such as indigo, sugarcane, cotton, etc. So, area

under food crop cultivation declined.

4. Post independence land reforms

1. To enhance the productivity of land by improving the economic

conditions of farmers and tenants so that they may have the

interest to invest in and improve agriculture.

2. To ensure distributive justice and to create an egalitarian society

by eliminating all forms of exploitation.

3. To create a system of peasant proprietorship with the motto of

land to the tiller. To transfer the incomes of the few to many so

that the demand for consumer goods would be created.

4. Abolition of intermediaries, tenancy reforms to regulate fair rent

and provide security to tenure and ceilings on holdings and

distribution of surplus land among the landlords. Consolidation of

holdings and prevention of their further fragmentation and

development of cooperative farming were also objectives.

Bhoodan and Gramdan

1. Bhoodan’s objective was to collect land as gift from zamindars and rich

farmers and redistribute that donated land among the landless farmers.

2. Mechanism

1. Vinoba headed Sarvodaya Samaj was at top of the hierarchy

which looked after the entire process. At the state level, there were

Pradesh Bhoodan committees in each region. At grass root level,

local committees and individual social workers.

2. Bhoodan worker took help of Gram Panchayat, Patwari to survey

the beneficiaries and land fertility. First preference given to

landless agricultural labourers and then to farmers with

insufficient land.

3. Positives

1. In the initial years the movement achieved a considerable degree

of success, especially in North India-UP, Bihar by receiving over

4 million acres of land as donation by 1956. The movement was

popularised in the belief that land is a gift of nature and it

belonged to all.

2. Movement helped to reduce the gap between haves and have-nots

in rural areas.

3. This movement was un-official. The landlords were under no

compulsion to donate their land, it was a voluntary movement.

One of the very few attempts after independence to bring about

land reform through a movement.

4. Promoted the Gandhian idea of trusteeship or that all land

belonged to God.

4. Obstacles

1. After 1956 movement lost its momentum. While nearly 4.5

million acres of Bhoodan land was available, barely 0.65 million

acres was actually distributed among 200,000 families. In some

cases the donors took back their land from the Bhoodan workers

for certain reasons.

2. Allotting authorities demanded petty money from the poor for

recommending their names for allotment. As a result, many

underserving villagers also got land.

3. Big landlords donated those land which were unfit for cultivation.

4. In the later phase, Bhoodan workers got associated with one or

another political parties. Some of them tried to use the Bhoodan

organisation as a means to gain political clout and dividends at the

time of election.

5. Mere allotment of land is insufficient. Because landless farmer

also needed seeds, fertiliser, irrigation, which were not provided

and land became useless for farmer which again mostly went back

to landlord.

6. The average size of land given was 0.5 to 3 acres which has

resulted in land fragmentation, diseconomies of scale and

disguised unemployment without any noticeable rise in agro-

production.

5. Limitation of Gramdan

1. Gramdan was successful mainly in villages where class

differentiation had not yet emerged and there was little if any

disparity in ownership of land or other property. Ex: Tribal

villages.

2. But didn’t find cooperation from other villages in the plains or

villages near urban centres.

Cooperative farming

1. Cooperative farming is pooling of land and practicing joint agriculture.

Farmer remains the owner of his land. Cooperative farming is not a new

concept in India. Since ancient times, Indian farmers have been giving

mutual aid to each other in weeding, harvesting etc.

2. Benefits

1. As the size of farm increases, the per hectare cost of using

tubewell, tractor comes down.

2. Solves the problem of sub-division and fragmentation of holdings.

3. Cooperative farm has more men and material resources to

increase irrigation potential and land productivity. Members

would not have been able to do it individually on their small farm.

4. Case studies generally point out that with cooperative farming, per

acre production increases.

3. Limitations of land cooperatives

1. Although village panchayat helped implementing cooperative

farming, initial response was lukewarm.

2. In big cooperatives, big farmers would setup bogus cooperative

farms by showing agricultural labourers as bogus members. This

was done to evade land ceiling and tenancy reform laws. These

big farmers were also able to get state subsidies such as fertilisers,

seed, etc.

3. Even in genuine cooperative farming societies, the rich farmers

dominated the management positions.

4. Some member farmers become lazy, thinking why bother when

we will get the same amount of profit in proportion of the land

owned.

5. In some state sponsored cooperatives, Government would allot

land to the landless, SC/ST, displaced persons etc. But they did

not get adequate support from government agencies for irrigation,

electricity, seeds, fertilizer, etc.

4. Limitations of service cooperatives

1. Leadership of the cooperatives consisted of leading families of the

village which not only owned a great deal of land but also

controlled trade and moneylending.

2. These well to do families, were thus able to corner for themselves

scarce agricultural inputs, including credit. In fact low interest

agricultural credit made available through cooperative rural banks

was used by such families for non-agricultural businesses,

consumption and even moneylending.

3. Cooperatives refused direct loans to cultivators and gave it to land

owners. So this denied the land less from accessing credit. The

cooperative credit societies, had faced huge defaulters,

consequently, a very large percentage of over dues.

4. Yet, over time, the service cooperatives, particularly the credit

cooperatives, performed a critical role for Indian agriculture.

Primary Agricultural Credit Societies (PACS) advanced loans.

Green revolution

1. It was decided to put more resources into those areas which already had

irrigation and those farmers who were already well off. The argument

was that those who already had the capacity could help increase

production rapidly in the short run. Thus the government offered high

yielding variety seeds, fertilisers, pesticides and better irrigation at

highly subsidised prices. The government also gave a guarantee to buy

the produce of the farmers at a given price.

2. The rich peasants and the large landholders were the major

beneficiaries of the process.

3. Failures

1. For many farmers the cost of machinery was too much and they

simply couldn’t afford it. Many very poor farmers with little

money to buy even the new seeds or fertiliser that was required.

2. HYV seeds require reliable water sources. As well as being

expensive, in some cases where inappropriate schemes were used

salinisation became a problem. Dam construction in some areas

also resulted in the flooding of some good farming land.

3. The large amounts of fertilisers and pesticides required by the

HYVs also led to serious environmental problems as they entered

water supplies.

4. In areas where there was an increase in mechanisation, there was

an increase in unemployment with fewer people needed to do the

jobs that were now done using tractors etc.

5. Many farmers who had tried to take on the new technologies

became heavily in debt, leading to increase stress and in some

instances suicide.

6. The Green revolution created wide regional and interstate

disparities. Only certain regions such as the Punjab, western UP,

coastal Andhra Pradesh, and parts of Tamil Nadu, received the

first wave of the Green Revolution package.

7. The Green revolution also increased income disparities. The

introduction of machinery led to the displacement of the service

caste groups who used to carry out these agriculture related

activities. This process of displacement also increased the pace of

rural-urban migration.

8. Landowners began to take back land from their tenants and

cultivate it directly because cultivation was becoming more

profitable. This made the rich farmers better off and worsened the

condition of the landless and marginal holders

9. Many traditional varieties of seeds that were developed over the

centuries by farmers, is being lost as hybrid, high-yielding, and

genetically modified varieties of seeds are being promoted as

more productive and scientific.

4. Second Green revolution

1. Second Green revolution should aim at promoting sustainable

livelihood, enabling the poor to come out of poverty by generating

gainful self-employment.

2. While the first Green revolution aimed at undertaking mass

agricultural production, the second Green Revolution should be to

promote agricultural production by the masses. This is the

Gandhian approach to equitable sharing of prosperity by involving

the poor in development.

White revolution

1. Amul spurred India’s milk revolution which made the country the

world’s largest producer of milk and milk products. In the process

Amul became the largest food brand in India and has ventured into

markets overseas. It started in Gujarat as a response to the exploitation

of marginal milk producers by traders or agents. Agents paid very little

to producers and made huge profits by selling the milk in Bombay city.

Then a cooperative of milk producers was formed to collect, process

and sell milk.

2. Approach

1. A crucial feature is democratic mode of functioning of the

cooperatives, with a conscious effort being made to not over look

the interest of land less and low caste.

2. Milk production drastically increased, so the union diversified its

activities. It started manufacturing milk powder, butter, cheese

and baby food. It became first brand in the entire world to

manufacture these products on commercial scale.

3. Computer technology was utilised by the union to do cost-benefit

analysis of prices of various inputs which go into cattle feed and

provide cattle a optimum mix of nutritious food.

4. An efficient artificial insemination service through the village

society workers was introduced so that producers could improve

the quality of stock. Vaccines were manufactured for the cattle.

High quality fodder, seed for producing green fodder were made

available.

5. A regular news letter was published in an effort to educate the

peasants about modern development in animal husbandry. Women

who looked after the animals in households were educated.

6. Institute of Rural Management (IRMA) was founded in Anand for

training professional managers for rural development projects

using AMUL as a live laboratory.

3. Impact

1. The country’s milk production and incomes of milk producers

significantly raised. AMUL is available today in over 40 countries

of the world. AMUL is exporting a wide variety of products

which include whole and skimmed milk powder, cottage cheese,

Ghee and indigenous sweets.

2. The chief beneficiaries were marginal or landless. It saw dairying

as a path to development, for generating employment and income

for rural households and alleviating poverty.

3. A by-product of the industry has been indigenous dairy equipment

industry and an impressive body of indigenous expertise that

include animal nutrition, animal health, artificial insemination,

management information systems, dairy engineering food

technology, etc.

4. Operation flood in cooperation with women NGO, such as

SEWA, established about 6000 women cooperatives. This gave

women their financial autonomy to generate more income outside

their homes.

5. Anand pattern was not limited to milk alone, cooperatives of fruits

and vegetables, oilseed cultivators, etc were organised similarly

by NDDB.

Cow protection movement

1. For a pastoral and agricultural economy like India, cow protection has

always been important. However, it never took a communal turn

through the centuries including under the Mughal rule. It took a

communal turn when it was used for political mobilisation through

Arya Samaj and cow protection movements.

2. The motivation for the same

1. Religious reason: The Hindu revivalist movement including cow

protection was a response to the proselytising activities of the

Muslims and Christians. Hindus traditionally lacked

organisational integration and Hindu mobilization took place

around the issue of cow.

2. Political reason: At a time when constitutional reforms were

happening and British where pitting one community against the

other, each community was concerned with having a bigger share

in the pie. Naturally community mobilization was important and

emotive issues such as cow protection, Hindi Urdu divide etc

were used as tools for community mobilisation.

3. Social reason: Various social groups took an active part in

gaurakshini sabhas to achieve their social ambitions. Zamindars

participated to ensure that their social status remains maintained.

Peasant communities were socially mobile and participated to

display their Hindu-ness and gain legitimacy in the eyes of

Hindus.

4. Thus is becomes apparent that while cow protection in ancient and

medieval times was more for protection of cow itself, from 19th

century onwards the issue gained utilitarian significance.

Nationalisation of banks

1. Post independent India was guided by the principles of democratic

socialism. However, due to control of banks in private hands, economic

democracy seemed unachievable. Therefore, a bold step of nationalising

banks was taken up to democratise capital.

2. Objectives

1. Social welfare: It was the need of the hour to direct the funds for

the needy and required sectors like agriculture, MSMEs were in

need of funds for their expansion and further economic

development.

2. Private monopolies: Prior to nationalisation many banks were

controlled by private business houses and corporate families. It

was necessary to check these monopolies in order to ensure a

smooth supply of credit to socially desirable sections.

3. Banking expansion: It was necessary to spread banking across

the country. It could be done through expanding banking network

in the un-banked areas.

4. Regional imbalance: In a country like India where we have a

urban-rural divide and it was necessary for banks to go in the rural

areas where the banking facilities were not available. In order to

reduce this regional imbalance nationalisation was justified.

5. Banking habits: In India more than 70% population used to stay

in rural areas. It was necessary to develop the banking habit

among such a large population.

3. It helped in following ways

1. Bank ownership shifted to Government and decision making

powers were democratised. The credit decisions balanced

economic growth and

More branches spread to rural and suburban regions resulting into

more financial inclusion. More credit to common masses and

various welfare programme like insurance, health, housing,

sanitation, infrastructure, road, rail etc.

More loans and credit to vulnerable and weaker section which led

to reducing economic disparities.

More loans for agriculture under green revolution resulted in

bumper production.

Various neglected sector like education, health, SME and

manufacturing industries got necessary capital and credit under

PSL.

The nationalisation gave mixed results of both positives and negatives

and hence the 1991 reforms were imperative to bring transformations in

the banking sector making it more competitive, transparent and

efficient.

Bhopal gas tragedy

License given to company for making of methyl isocyanate (MIC)

based pesticide at their Bhopal facility overridden opposition from

officials in the Ministry of Industrial Development.

UCC was allowed to hold majority stakes in UCIL departing from

legislation meant to curb monopolistic growth.

The corporation was licensed and permitted storage and production of

MIC in the midst of populated communities and worker’s repeated

demands for relocation of the factory and implementation of

occupational safety laws were consciously ignored.

Officials were aware of the obsolete, discarded technology and faulty

machinery being transferred to India but they never voiced against this

and remained silent, if they would have taken stand against this, disaster

could have not happened.

Bail given to Anderson on a amount of mere 25000 rupees and was

provided safe transit to Delhi and then to US by the Government

officials where he died in luxury while victims were in agony, shows

the complicity between Government and Corporate.

Flawed calculation of number of victims and settlement amount based

on this, with UCC and US, which have given no relief in terms of

money. Post-disaster investigations would show the flouting and

circumvention of several regulations by the Indian government,

including the Foreign Exchange Regulation Act and safety norms that

had set the stage for the disaster.

Indian environmentalism vs Western environmentalism

The environmental movement in India started in the early 1970s. Major

environmental movements in independent India include Chipko,

Appiko and the Narmada Bachao Andolan. Though having some basic

similarities, western and Indian environmentalism are qualitatively

different.

Both western and Indian environmentalism have raised issues such as

protection of forests (Chipko/Appiko), compensation for industrial

pollution and disasters (Bhopal Gas Tragedy) and banning of nuclear

energy (Kudankulam). Also, both types of movements typically employ

peaceful form of protests such as picketing, marches, sit-ins and

various forms of civil disobedience.

However, the concern for nature is couched in aesthetic terms in the

west. Nature is associated with a certain quality of life that all human

beings deserve to enjoy. In India, the protection of nature is portrayed

as essential to the survival of the communities involved. Ex: Right to

fodder.

The social base of the environmental movements also varies. In the

west, it is mostly led and constituted by the middle class, especially the

new middle class of professionals. In India, poor constitute a majority

of the protesters in the various environmental movements.

Many western environmental organisations have attained a degree of

formalisation and bureaucratisation and they constitute a mature

environmental sector. These organisations are staffed by paid

volunteers, experts, lawyers and scientists. In India, the vast majority of

environmental protests are initiated by local people generally in

participation with local bodies and NGOs.

Finally, Indian cultural and religious values, especially the animistic

aspects of Hindu and tribal religions, provide a spiritual basis to Indian

environmentalism which is not found in the materialistic values of

western religions. Hence Indian environmentalism and western

environmentalism vary in terms of social base, motives, values, etc.